California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. It is bordered by Oregon to the north, Nevada to the east, and Arizona to the southeast, as well as by Baja California in Mexico to the south. The most populous U.S. state, California's capital city is Sacramento, and its four largest cities are Los Angeles, San Diego, San Jose, and San Francisco. California is known for its varied climate and geography, as well as for its ethnically diverse population. The state is divided into 58 counties.
Before becoming a part of the United States, Alta California was colonized by the Spanish Empire, beginning in 1769. Alta California became a part of the newly independent nation of Mexico in 1821, and remained so until 1846. That year, an independent California Republic was declared. The Republic's first and only president was William B. Ide, who played a pivotal role during the Bear Flag Revolt. His term lasted twenty-five days and concluded when California was occupied by U.S. forces during the Mexican-American War. Under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo of 1848, Mexico formally ceded California to the United States. California was admitted to the Union as the 31st state on September 9, 1850.
California is the third largest U.S. state by land area; it contains a diverse geography, which ranges from the sandy and rocky beaches of the Pacific coast, to the rugged snow-capped Sierra Nevada mountains in the east, to desert areas in the southeast and the forests of the northwest. The center portion of the state is dominated by the Central Valley, one of the most productive agricultural areas in the world and the largest of any U.S. state. The Sierra Nevada mountains contain Yosemite Valley, famous for its glacially-carved domes, and Sequoia National Park, home to the giant sequoia trees, the largest living organisms on Earth. The state is home to Mount Whitney, the highest point in the contiguous United States, as well as the second lowest and hottest place in the Western Hemisphere, Death Valley. Many of the trees located in the California White Mountains are the oldest in the world; one Bristlecone pine has an age of 4,700 years.
The California Gold Rush began in 1848, dramatically changing California with a large influx of people and an economic boom. The early 20^th century was marked by Los Angeles becoming the center of the entertainment industry, in addition to the growth of a large tourism sector in the state. Along with California's prosperous agricultural industry, other industries include aerospace, petroleum, and computer and information technology. California ranks among the ten largest economies in the world, and were it a separate country, it would be 34^th amongst the most populous countries, just behind Poland, as well as the world's sixth-largest economy.

Etymology

The word California originally referred to the entire region composed of the current U.S. state of California, plus all or parts of Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and Wyoming, and the Mexican peninsula now known as Baja California.
The name California is most commonly believed to have derived from a storied paradise peopled by black Amazons and ruled by Queen Califia. The myth of Califia is recorded in a 1510 work The Exploits of Esplandian, written as a sequel to Amadís de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer García Ordóñez Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Califia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a remote land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts and rich in gold.

Geography and environment

California borders the Pacific Ocean, Oregon, Nevada, Arizona, and the Mexican state of Baja California. With an area of 160,000 mi² (411,000 km²) it is the third largest state in the United States in size, after Alaska and Texas. If it were a country, California would be the 59th largest in the world, between Iraq and Paraguay.
California's geography is rich, complex, and varied. In the middle of the state lies the California Central Valley, bounded by the coastal mountain ranges in the west, the Sierra Nevada to the east, the Cascade Range in the north and the Tehachapi Mountains in the south. The Central Valley is California's agricultural heartland and grows approximately one-third of the nation's food. Divided in two by the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta, the northern portion, the Sacramento Valley serves as the watershed of the Sacramento River, while the southern portion, the San Joaquin Valley is the watershed for the San Joaquin River; both areas derive its name from the rivers that transit them. With dredging, the Sacramento and the San Joaquin Rivers have remained sufficiently deep that several inland cities are seaports. The Sacramento-San Joaquin Bay Delta serves as a critical water supply hub for the state. Water is routed through an extensive network of canals and pumps out of the delta, that traverse nearly the length of the state, including the Central Valley Project, and the State Water Project. Water from the Sacramento-San Joaquin Bay Delta provides drinking water for nearly 23 million people, almost two-thirds of the state's population, and provides water to farmers on the west side of the San Joaquin Valley. The Channel Islands are located off the southern coast.
The Sierra Nevada (Spanish for "snowy range") include the highest peak in the contiguous forty-eight states, Mount Whitney, at 14,505 ft (4,421 m), Yosemite National Park, and the deep freshwater lake, Lake Tahoe, the largest lake in the state by volume. To the east of the Sierra Nevada are Owens Valley and Mono Lake, an essential migratory bird habitat. In the western part of the state is Clear Lake, the largest freshwater lake by area entirely in California. Though Lake Tahoe is larger, it is divided by the California/Nevada border. The Sierra Nevada falls to Arctic temperatures in winter and has several dozen small glaciers, including Palisade Glacier, the southernmost glacier in the United States.
About 35% of the state's total surface area is covered by forests, and California's diversity of pine species is unmatched by any other state. California contains more forestland than any other state except Alaska. In the south is a large inland salt lake, the Salton Sea. Deserts in California make up about 25% of the total surface area. The south-central desert is called the Mojave; to the northeast of the Mojave lies Death Valley, which contains the lowest, hottest point in North America, Badwater Flat. The distance from the lowest point of Death Valley to the peak of Mount Whitney is less than 200 miles (322 km). Indeed, almost all of southeastern California is arid, hot desert, with routine extreme high temperatures during the summer.
Along the California coast are several major metropolitan areas, including Greater Los Angeles, the San Francisco Bay Area, and San Diego.
California is famous for s due to a number of faults, in particular the San Andreas Fault. It is vulnerable to tsunamis, floods, droughts, Santa Ana winds, s, and landslides on steep terrain, and has several .

Climate

California climate varies from Mediterranean to subarctic. Much of the state has a Mediterranean climate, with cool, rainy winters and dry summers. The cool California Current offshore often creates summer fog near the coast. Further inland, one encounters colder winters and hotter summers.
Northern parts of the state average higher annual rainfall than the south. California's mountain ranges influence the climate as well: some of the rainiest parts of the state are west-facing mountain slopes. Northwestern California has a temperate climate, and the Central Valley has a Mediterranean climate but with greater temperature extremes than the coast. The high mountains, including the Sierra Nevada, have a mountain climate with snow in winter and mild to moderate heat in summer.
The east side of California's mountains has a drier rain shadow. The low deserts east of the southern California mountains experience hot summers and nearly frostless mild winters; the higher elevation deserts of eastern California see hot summers and cold winters. In Death Valley, the highest temperature in the Western Hemisphere, 134 °F (56.6 °C), was recorded July 10, 1913.

Ecology

Ecologically, California is one of the richest and most diverse parts of the world and includes some of the most endangered ecological communities. California is part of the Nearctic ecozone and spans a number of terrestrial ecoregions.
California's large number of endemic species includes relict species which have died out elsewhere, such as the Catalina Ironwood (Lyonothamnus floribundus). Many other endemics originated through differentiation or adaptive radiation, whereby multiple species develop from a common ancestor to take advantage of diverse ecological conditions such as the California lilac (Ceanothus). Many California endemics have become endangered, as urbanization, logging, overgrazing, and the introduction of exotic species have encroached on their habitat.
California boasts several superlatives in its collection of flora; the largest trees, the tallest trees, and the oldest trees. California's native grasses are perennial plants. After European contact, these were generally replaced by invasive species of European annual grasses; and, in modern times, California's hills turn a characteristic golden brown in summer.

Rivers

Arguably, the two most prominent rivers within California are the Sacramento River and the San Joaquin River, which drain the Central Valley and flow to the Pacific Ocean through San Francisco Bay. Two other important rivers are the Klamath River, in the north, and the Colorado River, on the southeast border.

History

Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, California was one of the most culturally and linguistically diverse areas in pre-Columbian North America; the area was inhabited by more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans. Large, settled populations lived on the coast and hunted sea mammals, fished for salmon, and gathered shellfish, while groups in the interior hunted terrestrial game and gathered nuts, acorns, and berries. California groups also were diverse in their political organization with bands, tribes, villages, and on the resource-rich coasts, large chiefdoms, such as the Chumash, Pomo and Salinan. Trade, intermarriage, and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups.
The first European to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was the Portuguese Joao Rodrigues Cabrilho, in 1542, sailing for the Spanish Empire. Some 37 years later, the English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed an undefined portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila Galleons on their return trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565. Sebastián Vizcaíno explored and mapped the coast of California in 1602 for New Spain.
Spanish missionaries began setting up twenty-three California Missions along the coast of what became known as Alta California (Upper California), together with small towns and presidios. The first mission in Alta California was established at San Diego in 1769. In 1821, the Mexican War of Independence gave Mexico (including California), independence from Spain; for the next twenty-five years, Alta California remained a remote northern province of the nation of Mexico. Cattle ranches, or ranchos, emerged as the dominant institutions of Mexican California. After Mexican independence from Spain, the chain of missions became the property of the Mexican government, and were secularized by 1832. The ranchos developed under ownership by Californios (Spanish-speaking Californians) who had received land grants and traded cowhides and tallow with Boston merchants.
Beginning in the 1820s, trappers and settlers from the United States and Canada began to arrive in Northern California, harbingers of the great changes that would later sweep the Mexican territory. These new arrivals used the Siskiyou Trail, California Trail, Oregon Trail and Old Spanish Trail to cross the rugged mountains and harsh deserts surrounding California. In this period, Imperial Russia explored the California coast, and established a trading post at Fort Ross.
In 1846, settlers rebelled against Mexican rule during the Bear Flag Revolt. Afterwards, rebels raised the Bear Flag (featuring a bear, a star, a red stripe, and the words "California Republic") at Sonoma.
However, the California Republic was to be short lived. The same year marked the outbreak of the Mexican-American War (1846-1848). When Commodore John D. Sloat of the United States Navy sailed into Monterey Bay and began the military occupation of California by the United States. Northern California capitulated in less than a month to the US forces.
Following a series of defensive battles in Southern California, including; The Siege of Los Angeles, the Battle of Dominguez Rancho, the Battle of San Pascual, the Battle of Rio San Gabriel and the Battle of La Mesa, the Treaty of Cahuenga was signed by the Californios on January 13, 1847, securing American control in California.
Following the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo that ended the war, the region was divided between Mexico and the United States; the western territory of Alta California, was to become the U.S. state of California, and the Arizona, Nevada, Colorado and Utah Territories, while the lower region of California, Baja California, remained in the possession of Mexico.
In 1848, the non-native population of California has been estimated to be no more than 15,000. But after gold was discovered, the population burgeoned with U.S. citizens, Europeans, and other immigrants during the great California Gold Rush. On September 9, 1850, as part of the Compromise of 1850, California was admitted to the United States as a free state (one in which slavery was prohibited).
The seat of government for California under Mexican rule was located at Monterey from 1777 until 1835, when Mexican authorities abandoned California, leaving their missions and military forts behind. In 1849, the Constitutional Convention was first held there. Among the duties was the task of determining the location for the new State capital. The first legislative sessions were held in San Jose (1850-1851). Subsequent locations included Vallejo (1852-1853), and nearby Benicia (1853-1854), although these locations eventually proved to be inadequate as well. The capital has been located in Sacramento since 1854.
At first, travel between California and the central and eastern parts of the United States was time-consuming and dangerous. A more direct connection came in 1869 with the completion of the First Transcontinental Railroad through Donner Pass in the Sierra Nevada mountains. After this rail link was established, hundreds of thousands of U.S. citizens came west, where new Californians were discovering that land in the state, if irrigated during the dry summer months, was extremely well-suited to fruit cultivation and agriculture in general. Vast expanses of wheat and other cereal crops, vegetable crops, cotton, and nut and fruit trees were grown (including oranges in Southern California), and the foundation was laid for the state's prodigious agricultural production in the Central Valley and elsewhere.
During the early 20th century, migration to California accelerated with the completion of major transcontinental highways like the Lincoln Highway and Route 66. In the period from 1900 to 1965, the population grew from fewer than one million to become the most populous state in the Union. From 1965 to the present, the population changed radically and became one of the most diverse in the world. The state is regarded as a world center of technology and engineering businesses, the entertainment and music industries, and of U.S. agricultural production.

Energy

Resources and consumption

California’s crude oil and natural gas deposits are located in six geological basins in the Central Valley and along the coast. California has more than one dozen of the United State’s largest oil fields, including the Belridge South oil field, the second largest oil field in the contiguous United States. California’s hydroelectric power potential ranks second in the United States (behind Washington State), and substantial geothermal and wind power resources are found along the coastal mountain ranges and the eastern border with Nevada. High solar power potential is found in southeastern California’s deserts.
California is the most populous State in the Nation but its total energy demand is second to the state of Texas. Although California is a leader in some energy-intensive industries, the state has one of the lowest per capita energy consumption rates in the country. This is in spite of the fact that more motor vehicles are registered in California than any other state, and worker commute times are among the longest in the country.

Petroleum

California’s crude oil output accounts for more than one-tenth of total U.S. production. Drilling operations are concentrated primarily in Kern County and the Los Angeles basin. Although there is also substantial offshore oil and gas production, there is a permanent moratorium on new offshore oil and gas leasing in California waters and a deferral of leasing in Federal waters.
California ranks third in the United States in petroleum refining capacity and accounts for more than one-tenth of total U.S. capacity. In addition to oil from California, California’s refineries process crude oil from Alaska and foreign suppliers. The refineries are configured to produce cleaner fuels, including reformulated motor gasoline and low-sulfur diesel, to meet strict Federal and State environmental regulations.
Most California motorists are required to use a special motor gasoline blend called California Clean Burning Gasoline (CA CBG). By 2004, California completed a transition from methyl tertiary butyl-ether (MTBE) to ethanol as a gasoline oxygenate additive, making California the largest ethanol fuel market in the United States. There are four ethanol production plants in central and southern California, but most of California’s ethanol supply is transported from other states or abroad.

Natural gas

California natural gas production typically is less than 2 percent of total annual U.S. production and satisfies less than one-fifth of state demand. California receives most of its natural gas by pipeline from production regions in the Rocky Mountains, the Southwest, and western Canada.

Electricity

Natural gas-fired power plants typically account for more than one-half of State electricity generation. California is one of the largest hydroelectric power producers in the United States, and with adequate rainfall, hydroelectric power typically accounts for close to one-fifth of State electricity generation. Due to strict emission laws, only a few small coal-fired power plants operate in California.
The Mojave Desert is one of the best sites in the United States for solar power plants. Solar insolation is very high and significant population centers are located in the area. Two prototype systems known as "Solar One" and "Solar Two" produce 10 MW each.
California’s two nuclear power plants account for almost one-fifth of total generation, these are:

Diablo Canyon Power Plant: 2 reactors. Operated and owned by Pacific Gas & Electric Co.

San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station : 2 reactors . Operated by Southern California Edison with various owners ( SCE; San Diego Gas and Electric; City of Anaheim and the City of Riverside).

California leads the United States in electricity generation from nonhydroelectric renewable energy sources, such as wind, geothermal, solar energy, fuel wood, and municipal solid waste/landfill gas resources. A facility known as “The Geysers,” located in the Mayacamas Mountains north of San Francisco, is the largest group of geothermal power plants in the world, with more than 750 megawatts of installed capacity.
Due to high electricity demand, California imports more electricity than any other state, primarily hydroelectric power from states in the Pacific Northwest (via Path 15 and Path 66) and coal- and natural gas-fired production from the desert Southwest via Path 46.

State politics and government

California is governed as a republic, with three branches of government: the executive branch consisting of the Governor of California and the other independently elected constitutional officers; the legislative branch consisting of the Assembly and Senate; and the judicial branch consisting of the Supreme Court of California and lower courts. The state also allows direct participation of the electorate by initiative, referendum, recall, and ratification. California follows a closed primary system. The state's capital is Sacramento.
The Governor of California and the other state constitutional officers serve four-year terms and may be re-elected only once. The California State Legislature consists of a 40 member Senate and 80 member Assembly. Senators serve four year terms and Assembly members two. Members of the Assembly are subject to term limits of three terms, and members of the Senate are subject to term limits of two terms.
For the 2007–2008 session, there are 48 Democrats and 32 Republicans in the Assembly. In the Senate, there are 25 Democrats and 15 Republicans. The current governor is Republican Arnold Schwarzenegger, who was re-elected to a term that lasts through January 2011.
California's judiciary is the largest in the United States (with a total of 1,600 judges, while the federal system has only about 840). It is supervised by the seven Justices of the Supreme Court of California. Justices of the Supreme Court and Courts of Appeal are appointed by the Governor, but are subject to retention by the electorate every 12 years.

Political culture

California has an idiosyncratic political culture. It was the second state to legalize abortion and one of the first states to legalize domestic partnerships for gay couples, and was also the first where voters decided that only marriage between a man and a woman would be recognized (legalized domestic partnerships were not approved by voters, but were made law by the state legislature). California was also the first state in which voters passed a law ending affirmative action (Proposition 209 in 1996).
Democratic strength is centered in coastal regions, of Los Angeles County and San Francisco Bay Area. Democrats also hold a slight majority in Sacramento. The Republican strength is greatest in the San Joaquin Valley, which includes the rapidly-growing cities of Stockton, and Modesto, Orange County remains strongly Republican.
Since 1990, California has generally elected Democratic candidates. However, the state has had little hesitance in electing Republican Governors, though many of its Republican Governors, such as the current Governor Schwarzenegger, tend to be considered "moderate Republicans" and tend to be more liberal than the party itself. Three of the past four Governors of the state were Republican.
Overall, the trend in California politics has been towards the Democratic Party and away from the Republican Party. This trend is most obvious in presidential elections. From 1952-1988 the Republicans lost California only once in a presidential election, when Lyndon B. Johnson won a massive landslide over Republican Barry Goldwater in 1964. Since 1990, the state has gradually moved back to it's Democratic roots. Additionally, the Democrats have easily won every U.S. Senate race since 1994 and have maintained consistent majorities in both houses of the state legislature. In the U.S. House, the Democrats hold a 34-19 edge for the 110th Congress. The two U.S senators are Dianne Feinstein (D), a native of San Francisco and Barbara Boxer (D). The only area in which the Republicans can really compete, is in the governorship, which is currently held by Arnold Schwarzenegger, a "moderate Republican".

California state law

California's legal system is explicitly based on English common law (as is the case with all other states except Louisiana) but carries a few features from Spanish civil law, such as community property. Capital punishment is a legal form of punishment and the state has the largest "Death Row" population in the country (though Texas is far more active in carrying out executions). California's "Death Row" is currently located in San Quentin State Prison situated north of San Francisco in Marin County. Currently Capital punishment is on hold in the courts in California.

Cities, towns and counties

For lists of cities, towns, and counties in California, see List of cities in California (by population), List of cities in California, List of urbanized areas in California (by population), List of counties in California, and California locations by per capita income.

The state of California has 478 incorporated cities and towns, of which 456 are cities and 22 are towns. Under California law, the terms "city" and "town" are explicitly interchangeable; the name of an incorporated municipality in the state can either be "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)."
The majority of these cities and towns are within one of five metropolitan areas. Sixty-eight percent of California's population lives in its three largest metropolitan areas, Greater Los Angeles, the San Francisco Bay Area and the Riverside-San Bernardino Area, known as the Inland Empire. Although smaller, the other two large population centers are the San Diego and the Sacramento metro areas. California is home to the largest county in the contiguous United States by area, San Bernardino County.
The state recognizes two kinds of cities--charter and general law. General law cities owe their existence to state law and consequentially governed by it; charter cities are governed by their own city charters. Cities incorporated in the 19th century tend to be charter cities. All of the state's ten most populous cities are charter cities.

Education

California offers a unique three-tier system of public postsecondary education:

The preeminent research university system in the state is the University of California (UC) which employs more Nobel Prize laureates than any other institution in the world, and is considered one of the world's finest public university systems. There are ten general UC campuses, and a number of specialized campuses in the UC system.

The California State University (CSU) system has over 400,000 students, making it the largest university system in the United States. It is intended to accept the top one-third (1/3) of high school students. The CSU schools are primarily intended for undergraduate education.

The California Community Colleges system provides lower division courses. It is composed of 109 colleges, serving a student population of over 2.9 million.

California is also home to such notable private universities and colleges as Stanford University, the University of Southern California (USC), the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), Occidental College, and the Claremont Colleges. California has hundreds of other private colleges and universities, including many religious and special-purpose institutions.
Public secondary education consists of high schools that teach elective courses in trades, languages, and liberal arts with tracks for gifted, college-bound and industrial arts students. California's public educational system is supported by a unique constitutional amendment that requires 40% of state revenues to be spent on education.

Sports

California hosted the 1960 Winter Olympics at Squaw Valley Ski Resort, the 1932 and 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, as well as the 1994 FIFA World Cup.
California has nineteen major professional sports league franchises, far more than any other state. The San Francisco Bay Area has seven major league teams spread in three cities, San Francisco, Oakland and San Jose. While the Greater Los Angeles Area is home to ten major league franchises, it is also the largest metropolitan area not to have a team from the National Football League. San Diego has two major league teams, and Sacramento also has two.
Home to some of most prominent universities in the United States, California has long had many respected collegiate sports programs. In particular, the athletic programs of UC Berkeley, USC, UCLA, Stanford and Fresno State are often nationally ranked in the various collegiate sports. California is also home to the oldest college bowl game, the annual Rose Bowl, and the Holiday Bowl, among others.
Below is a list of major sports teams in California:

External links

Government

State of California Official Web site

2007 California Vehicle Code

Tourism & recreation

visitcalifornia.com California's Official Vacation Guide

visitcalifornia.jp California Travel & Tourism Commission Japan Office

Other

U.S. Census Bureau

Native Tribes, Groups, Language Families and Dialects of California

Counting California

California Historical Society cultural sites index

Economic Research Service, USDA - California State

List of official California State Symbols from the California State Library

USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of California

Map of California watersheds

California Crime Rates 1960 - 2006

California Law Enforcement Agency Uniform Crime Reports 1980 to 2005

The Bear Flag Museum

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

New York is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States, and is the country's third most populous state. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, and shares a water border with Rhode Island as well as an international border with the Canadian provinces of Quebec and Ontario.
New York City, which is both the largest city in the state and in the entire United States, is known for its history as a gateway for immigration to the United States and its status as a financial, cultural, transportation, and manufacturing center.
New York was inhabited by the Algonquian, Iroquois, and Lenape Native American groups at the time Dutch and French nationals moved into the region in the very early 17th century. First claimed by Henry Hudson in 1609, the region came to have Dutch forts in Fort Orange, near the site of the present-day capital of Albany in 1614 and was colonized by the Dutch in 1624, at both Albany and Manhattan; it later fell to British annexation in 1664. About one third of all of the battles of the Revolutionary War took place in New York. New York became an independent state on July 9, 1776 and enacted its constitution in 1777. The state ratified the United States Constitution on July 26, 1788 to become the 11th state. According to the US Department of Commerce, it is also the state of choice for foreign visitors, leading both Florida and California in tourism respectively.

Geography

New York covers 54,475 square miles (141,089 km²) and ranks as 27th largest state by size. The Great Appalachian Valley dominates eastern New York, while Lake Champlain is the chief northern feature of the valley, which also includes the Hudson River flowing southward to the Atlantic Ocean. The rugged Adirondack Mountains, with vast tracts of wilderness, lie west of the valley. Most of the southern part of the state is on the Allegheny plateau, which rises from the southeast to the Catskill Mountains. The western section of the state is drained by the Allegheny River and rivers of the Susquehanna and Delaware systems. The Delaware River Basin Compact, signed in 1961 by New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and the federal government, regulates the utilization of water of the Delaware system.
New York's borders touch (clockwise from the west) two Great Lakes (Erie and Ontario, which are connected by the Niagara River); the provinces of Ontario and Quebec in Canada; Lake Champlain; three New England states (Vermont, Massachusetts, and Connecticut); the Atlantic Ocean, and two Mid-Atlantic states (New Jersey and Pennsylvania). In addition, Rhode Island shares a water border with New York.
Contrasting with New York City's urban atmosphere, the vast majority of the state is dominated by farms, forests, rivers, mountains, and lakes. New York's Adirondack Park is the largest state park in the United States. Niagara Falls, on the Niagara River as it flows from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, is a popular attraction. The Hudson River begins with Lake Tear of the Clouds and flows south through the eastern part of the state without draining Lakes George or Champlain. Lake George empties at its north end into Lake Champlain, whose northern end extends into Canada, where it drains into the Richelieu and then the St Lawrence Rivers. Four of New York City's five boroughs are on the three islands at the mouth of the Hudson River: Manhattan Island, Staten Island, and Brooklyn and Queens on Long Island.
"Upstate" is a common term for New York State counties north of suburban Westchester and Rockland counties. Upstate New York typically includes the Catskill and Adirondack Mountains, the Shawangunk Ridge, the Finger Lakes and the Great Lakes in the west; and Lake Champlain, Lake George, and Oneida Lake in the northeast; and rivers such as the Delaware, Genesee, Mohawk, and Susquehanna. The highest elevation in New York is Mount Marcy in the Adirondacks.

Climate

The climate of New York State is broadly representative of the humid continental type that prevails in the northeastern United States, but its diversity is not usually encountered within an area of comparable size. The Great Lakes, ocean, rivers, and mountains give New York interesting weather. Masses of cold, dry air frequently arrive from the northern interior of the continent. Prevailing winds from the south and southwest transport warm, humid air, which has been conditioned by the Gulf of Mexico and adjacent subtropical waters. These two air masses provide the dominant continental characteristics of the climate. A third great air mass flows inland from the North Atlantic Ocean and produces cool, cloudy, and damp weather conditions.
Nearly all storm and frontal systems moving eastward across the continent pass through or come close in proximity to New York State. Storm systems often move northward along the Atlantic coast and have an important influence on the weather and climate of Long Island and the lower Hudson Valley. Frequently, areas deep in the interior of the state feel the effects of such coastal storms.
The winters are long and cold in the Plateau Divisions of the state. In the majority of winter seasons, a temperature of or lower can be expected in the northern highlands (Northern Plateau) and or colder in the southwestern and east-central highlands (Southern Plateau). The Adirondack region records from 35 to 45 days with below zero temperatures in normal to severe winters. Much of Upstate New York, particularly Western and Central New York, are typically affected by lake-effect snows. This usually results in high yearly snowfall totals in these regions. Winters are also long and cold in both Western and Central New York, though not as cold as the Adirondack region. The New York City metro area in comparison to the rest of the state is milder in the winter. Thanks in part to geography (its proximity to the Atlantic and being shielded to the north and west by hillier terrain), the New York metro area usually sees far less snow than the rest of the state. Lake-effect snow rarely affects the New York metro area, except for its extreme northwestern suburbs. Winters also tend to be noticeably shorter here than the rest of the state.
The summer climate is cool in the Adirondacks, Catskills, and higher elevations of the Southern Plateau. The New York City area and lower portions of the Hudson Valley have rather warm summers by comparison, with some periods of high, uncomfortable humidity. The remainder of New York State enjoys pleasantly warm summers, marred by only occasional, brief intervals of sultry conditions. Summer daytime temperatures usually range from the upper 70s to mid 80s °F (25 to 30 °C) over much of the State, producing an atmospheric environment favorable to many athletic, recreational, and other outdoor activities.
New York ranks 46th among the 50 states in the amount of greenhouse gases generated per person. This efficiency is primarily due to the state's relatively higher rate of mass transit use.

State parks

New York has many state parks and two major forest preserves. Adirondack Park, roughly the size of the state of Vermont and the largest state park in the United States, was established in 1892 and given state constitutional protection in 1894. The thinking that led to the creation of the Park first appeared in George Perkins Marsh's Man and Nature, published in 1864. Marsh argued that deforestation could lead to desertification; referring to the clearing of once-lush lands surrounding the Mediterranean, he asserted "the operation of causes set in action by man has brought the face of the earth to a desolation almost as complete as that of the moon."
The Catskill Park was protected in legislation passed in 1885, which declared that its land was to be conserved and never put up for sale or lease. Consisting of 700,000 acres (2,800 km²) of land, the park is a habitat for bobcats, minks and fishers. There are some 400 black bears living in the region. The state operates numerous campgrounds and there are over 300 miles (480 km) of multi-use trails in the Park.
The Montauk Point State Park boasts the famous Montauk Lighthouse commissioned by the first President of the U.S.A, George Washington, which is a major tourist attraction and is located in the township of East Hampton, Suffolk County. Hither Hills park offers camping and is a popular destination with surfcasting sport fishermen.

History

During the 17th century, Dutch trading posts established for the purchase of pelts from the Iroquois and other tribes expanded into the colony of New Netherlands. The first of these trading posts were Beverwyck (1614, now Albany); New Amsterdam, (1623, now NYC); and Esopus, (1653, now Kingston). The British captured the colony during the Second Anglo-Dutch War and governed it as the Province of New York. Agitation for independence during the 1770s brought the American Revolution, which for New York was also a civil war.
New York declared itself an independent state on July 9, 1776. The New York state constitution was framed by a convention which assembled at White Plains, New York on July 10 1776, and after repeated adjournments and changes of location, terminated its labors at Kingston, New York on Sunday evening, April 20 1777, when the new constitution was adopted with but one dissenting vote. It was not submitted to the people for ratification. It was drafted by John Jay. On 30 July 1777, George Clinton was inaugurated as the first Governor of New York at Kingston.
During the revolution, four of the Iroquois nations fought on the side of the British. They were defeated in the Sullivan Expedition of 1779. Suffering privations, many members moved to Canada. Most, absent or present, lost their land after the war. Some of the land purchases are the subject of modern-day claims by the individual tribes.
New York state was one of the original thirteen colonies that became the United States. It was the 11th state to ratify the United States Constitution, on July 26 1788.
Transportation in western New York was difficult before canals were built in the early part of the nineteenth century. The Hudson and Mohawk Rivers could be navigated only as far as Central New York. While the St. Lawrence River could be navigated to Lake Ontario, the way westward to the other Great Lakes was blocked by Niagara Falls, and so the only route to western New York was over land. Governor DeWitt Clinton strongly advocated building a canal to connect the Hudson River with Lake Erie, and thus all the Great Lakes. Work commenced in 1817, and the Erie Canal was finished in 1825. The canal opened up vast areas of New York to commerce and settlement, and enabled port cities such as Buffalo to grow and prosper.

Politics and government

Under its present constitution (adopted in 1938), New York is governed by three branches of government: the executive branch, consisting of the Governor of New York and the other independently elected constitutional officers; the legislative branch, consisting of the bicameral New York State Legislature; and the judicial branch, consisting of the state's highest court, the New York Court of Appeals, and lower courts. The state has two U.S. senators, 29 members in the United States House of Representatives, and 31 electoral votes in national presidential elections (a drop from its 41 votes during the 1970s).
New York's capital is Albany. The state's subordinate political units are its 62 counties. Other officially incorporated governmental units are towns, cities, and villages. New York has more than 4,200 local governments that take one of these forms. About 52% of all revenue raised by local governments in the state is raised solely by the government of New York City, which is the largest municipal government in the United States.
The state has a strong imbalance of payments with the federal government. New York State receives 82 cents in services for every $1 it sends in taxes to the federal government in Washington. The state ranks near the bottom, in 42nd place, in federal spending per tax dollar.
Many of New York's public services are carried out by public benefit corporations, frequently called authorities or development corporations. Well known public benefit corporations in New York include the Metropolitan Transportation Authority, which oversees New York City's public transportation system, and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, a bi-state transportation infrastructure agency.
New York's legal system is explicitly based on English common Law. Capital punishment was declared unconstitutional in 2004.

Politics

In the last few decades, New York State has generally supported candidates belonging to the Democratic Party in national elections. Democratic presidential candidate John Kerry won New York State by 18 percentage points in 2004, while Democrat Al Gore won the state by an even larger margin in 2000. New York City is a major Democratic stronghold with liberal politics. Many of the state's other urban areas, such as Albany, Buffalo, Rochester, and Syracuse are also Democratic. Rural upstate New York, however, is generally more conservative than the cities and tends to favor Republicans. Heavily populated Suburban areas such as Westchester County and Long Island have swung between the major parites over the past 25 years, but more often supports Democrats.
New York City is the most important source of political fund-raising in the United States for both major parties. Four of the top five zip codes in the nation for political contributions are in Manhattan. The top zip code, 10021 on the Upper East Side, generated the most money for the 2000 presidential campaigns of both George W. Bush and Al Gore. Republican Presidential candidates will often skip campaigning in the state, taking it as a loss and focusing on vital swing states.

Education

The University of the State of New York oversees all public primary, middle-level, and secondary education in the state, while the New York City Department of Education manages the public school system in New York City.
At the college level, the statewide public university system is the State University of New York (SUNY). The City University of New York (CUNY) is the public university system of New York City. SUNY schools SUNY Geneseo and Binghamton University are consistently ranked in the top two best values in education in the nation, according to Kipliger's. Binghamton University was ranked as the, "Premier Public University in the Northeast," according to the Fisk Guide to Colleges. The SUNY system consists of 64 community colleges, technical colleges, undergraduate colleges and universities. The four university centers are University at Albany, Binghamton University, University at Buffalo and SUNY Stony Brook.
In addition there are several private universities, including the oldest Catholic institution in the northeast, Fordham University. New York is home to both Columbia University and Cornell University, making it the only state to contain more than one Ivy League school.
In total, New York State is home to 307 degree granting institutions making it the second in number behind California. Among the most notable and highest ranked institutions are:

Binghamton University

Clarkson University

Colgate University

Columbia University

Cornell University

Fordham University

SUNY Geneseo

Hamilton College

Ithaca College

Marist College

New York University (NYU)

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI)

University of Rochester

Rochester Institute of Technology (RIT)

Syracuse University

Vassar College

Polytechnic University

Sports

New York hosted the 1980 Winter Olympics at Lake Placid, the Games known for the USA-USSR hockey game dubbed the "Miracle on Ice" in which a group of American college students and amateurs defeated the heavily-favored Soviet national ice hockey team 4-3 and went on to win the gold medal. Lake Placid also hosted the 1932 Winter Olympics. Along with St. Moritz, Switzerland and Innsbruck, Austria, it is one of the three places to have twice hosted the Winter Olympic Games.
New York is represented in the National Football League by the Buffalo Bills; Despite their names, the New York Giants and New York Jets, which had both been based in New York City, play in Giants Stadium, which is located in East Rutherford, New Jersey. New York also has two Major League Baseball teams, the New York Yankees (based in The Bronx), and the New York Mets (based in Queens). Three National Hockey League franchises (the New York Rangers, the New York Islanders and the Buffalo Sabres) are based in New York. A National Basketball Association team, the New York Knicks is based in Manhattan, while the New Jersey Nets are scheduled to move into Brooklyn in the near future.

Navy vessel namesakes

There have been at least six United States Navy ships named USS New York in honor of the state. The keel was laid for the USS New York (LPD 21) on September 10, 2004 and she will be the seventh US Navy ship to be named for the state. The New York's motto will be "Never Forget."
The USS New York is one of several ships in the San Antonio-class of amphibious transport dock ships (LPD stands for Landing Ship Transport, Dock). The ship will be used to transport and land Marines, their equipment and supplies, such as amphibious vehicles and helicopters. It is one of three similar ships that are being built and being given names that are associated with September 11. The others are the LPD 24 USS Arlington (named because of the location of the Pentagon) and the LPD 25 USS Somerset (named after the county in Pennsylvania where United Airlines Flight 93 crashed).
Twenty-four tons of steel from the World Trade Center have been recycled for construction of the ship. Approximately seven tons were used to make the bow section of the ship's hull. The steel from the World Trade Center has been treated with reverence by the ship builders. Several workers have postponed their retirements for the honor of constructing the USS New York.
According to Naval records, several other ships have carried the name the USS New York. This new ship was given the name the USS New York when former New York governor George Pataki wrote to Secretary of the Navy Gordon England and requested that the Navy use the name to honor the victims of September 11 and to give it to a surface ship that would be used to fight the War on Terror. This is an exception to the current use of state names for submarines only.
The first ship to carry the name USS New York was an armed gondola built by Revolutionary War General Benedict Arnold in 1776. She was burned to avoid capture later in the Revolutionary War.
The second ship named USS New York was a 36-gun frigate built in New York and commissioned in 1800. She saw service in the Mediterranean in the war against the Barbary Pirates. She was burned by the British in 1814 while she was in the Washington Navy Yard.
The third USS New York was one of nine built to discourage a future war with Britain after the war of 1812. The threat abated, so she was never launched. Union forces later burned the 74-gun ship of the line to avoid her capture at the start of the American Civil War.
Beginning in 1863, a screw sloop that was being built that would have carried the name USS New York, but it also never got launched, being sold in 1888.
The fifth USS New York (ACR 2) was a armored cruiser commissioned in 1893. She was used in the Spanish-American War and was the flagship of Rear Admiral William T. Sampson in the Battle of Santiago de Cuba (July 3, 1898), which destroyed the Spanish fleet. She was later renamed the USS Saratoga in 1911 and then renamed again as the USS Rochester in 1917.
The sixth was the battleship USS New York (BB 34), commissioned in 1914. She saw service in both World War I and World War II. She participated in atomic testing off the Bikini Islands surviving both an atmospheric explosion and an underwater detonation. She was used as a target ship in 1948 and was sunk off Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.
Finally, there was a Los Angeles-class nuclear attack submarine USS New York City (SSN 696) in service from 1979 until 1997 when she was decommissioned.

External links

New York State Office of Parks Recreation and Historic Preservation

State of New York Website

New York Governor Website

NYProfiles.com - Profiles of New Yorkers

I Love New York - official New York State tourism website

Population of each county

USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of New York

US Census Bureau

New York State Facts

NewYoogle.com - Google customised by New York experts

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

New York City, arguably the world's most vibrant and sprawling metropolis, occupies five boroughs, each with its own distinct identity. After all, before the historic 1898 consolidation, Manhattan, Brooklyn, the Bronx, Queens and Staten Island were each independent municipalities.

Manhattan Manhattan, home to the most recognizable sites, dominates popular perception of New York City. Its most famous districts are listed below:

Wall Street and the Financial District New York's first district remains its most historic. Wall Street investment banks coexist with landmarks like Trinity Church . Battery Park draws people for its panoramic views. The World Trade Center was also one of the area's most popular destinations, until its tragic destruction on Sept. 11, 2001; no longer will people be able to view the city from its observation deck, and it may be years before this area of Manhattan returns to normal.

Harlem Long the national epicenter of African-American culture, Harlem was home to the Harlem Renaissance, arguably this country's most influential artistic, literary and cultural movement. It has since seen some of New York's worst poverty and crime. But now, Harlem is benefiting from a booming economy, as rents rise and tourists clamor to visit its jazz clubs and Southern restaurants.

Greenwich Village At the turn of the 19th century, Greenwich Village drew free spirits from around the nation, including poet Edna St. Vincent Millay and playwright Eugene O'Neill. As the years went on, rents inevitably rose. Now, its townhouses are some of the most expensive in the city. New York University students gather here in the Washington Square Park . A diverse array of shops, bars and music clubs exist along Bleecker Street.

East Village Artists, students and yuppies have gone a long way towards gentrifying the long poor and multi-ethnic neighborhood. Today, the artistic spirit that initially brought about change remains evident. Urban gardens and art exhibits sit beside cafes, craft shops and vegetarian restaurants.

Soho & Tribeca Once home to massive factories, artists moved in and transformed the area into a bustling urban mecca. Galleries, designer shops, sophisticated restaurants and trendy bars followed soon after. Today, tourists flock here and rents have risen sky high.

Lower East Side It is hard to believe that this area once housed some of the city's worst slums. Today, rents are rising and yuppies have arrived. The historic Orchard Street Shopping District is home to several hip bars and nightclubs.

Chinatown Asian restaurants, grocery stores and trinket shops line the ever-crowded streets. One need not travel to Hong Kong for a $10 Rolex watch, as plenty are available here. Dim Sum and other favorites attract diners on practically every corner.

Little Italy Frank Sinatra, Italian restaurants and kitsch draw tourists to this lively neighborhood surrounding Mulberry Street. The Feast of San Gennaro still welcomes its throngs, but the neighborhood is fast being surrounded by nearby Chinatown.

Gramercy and Flatiron The majestic Flatiron Building lords over this beautiful, eclectic district marked by loft spaces to the west and pre-war residences to the east. More than a century after their construction, the apartment buildings and townhouses around Gramercy Park remain coveted addresses.

Chelsea Once a working class community, Chelsea has become a posh address. As rents in Greenwich Village rose, the vibrant gay community moved upwards to occupy Chelsea's many brownstones and loft spaces. Others followed, and today it reflects New York's ethnic and cultural diversity.

Meat Packing District Chelsea's energy was bound to spill downward into this former industrial wasteland. Now, some of the city's hottest destinations occupy spaces, once reserved for slaughtered meat.

Midtown As the name implies, Midtown is smack in the middle of everything. Nobody is really sure where Midtown begins (most would say somewhere at the 30s), but most agree it stops around Central Park . Publishing houses, financial firms, import/export companies and fashion houses all do business here. Trump Tower entices shoppers, along with all those glorious stores along Fifth Avenue. Ice skaters twirl at Rockefeller Center and the spectacular St. Patrick's Cathedral offers serenity and spirituality.

Times Square & Hell's Kitchen Many New Yorkers miss the almost-gone seediness of Times Square, as the World of Disney has replaced sex shops and strip clubs. However, most people begrudgingly admit that it is better this way. Visitors adore everything from souvenir shops to enormous billboards and Broadway musicals. A few blocks west lies Hell's Kitchen, a community filled with eclectic restaurants, bars and shops.

Upper East Side Park, Fifth and Madison have always been posh avenues. Whether in the gilded mansions of yesterday or the area's hi-rise modern apartments, old money and high society have long made their home here. Consequently, shops to serve them line Madison Avenue. Baby Gap coexists with art galleries and antique shops. Further east, new money has overtaken the old Yorkville slum.

Upper West Side When the co-ops of the East Side were freer to restrict residents, the Upper West Side became home to new money. Then, as "modernist" Eastsiders tore down their pre-war palaces, Upper West Side residents kept their old buildings and renters now value the neighborhood's attractive real estate. Meanwhile, bars and restaurants catering to Long Island and New Jersey folk (a. k. a. the Bridge and Tunnels crowd) continue to sprout like weeds along Columbus and Amsterdam avenues.

Brooklyn This massive borough stretches from festive Coney Island to elegant Brooklyn Heights. But wherever Brooklynites hail from, they remain a largely proud lot. They can boast of the Brooklyn Botanic Garden , the gorgeous bridge that bears the borough's name, the Brooklyn Museum of Art, and a growing restaurant scene. Some are even proud of their accent.

Queens From Flushing to Astoria, Queens is experiencing a quiet renaissance, as refugees from Manhattan's high rents continue to discover what this working-class borough offers its residents. Inexpensive ethnic restaurants pepper the borough. Queens is also home to the Kaufman Astoria Studio and the American Museum of the Moving Image.

The Bronx This borough boasts the Yankees, one of the nation's finest zoos, and an extraordinary Botanical Garden . Alas, poverty continues to exist, but areas including the South Bronx have benefited from economic booms.

Staten Island More like a middle and working class suburb than a borough of the city, Staten Island houses thousands of residents who ride the ferry to work in Manhattan each business day.

San Francisco is quite small, yet its hilly terrain and patchwork demographic profile give it more distinctly defined neighborhoods than a city five times its size. As a result, the sights, sounds and flavors of a community—and even its climate—can change within a single block.

Castro Street and Noe Valley The center of gay San Francisco, and a landmark for gay culture everywhere, the Castro's bars, dance clubs, restaurants, and one-of-a-kind shops abound in the commercial area around 18th and Castro Street. There's arguably more street life in the Castro than anywhere else in the city, especially on weekends. The Sisters of Perpetual Indulgence sometimes make an appearance at special events (they're really men in nun drag), and take it from us—this is the place to be on Halloween. Trek up Castro to Liberty Street to see exceptional Victorian homes. Over the hill lies Noe Valley and its main shopping strip, 24th Street. Cute and relatively quiet, Noe Valley has enough great restaurants and gourmet food shops to make it sophisticated, but not too many chromed-up bars and Italian clothing boutiques to make it stuffy.

Chinatown The greatest single concentration of Chinese people outside of Asia—a population of roughly 80,000—live in the approximately 24 square blocks of Chinatown, making it the most densely populated area of San Francisco. As you walk around, you'll be richly rewarded by the sights, sounds, smells and tastes of this vibrant community. Grant Avenue is the decorative showpiece of Chinatown. Try dim sum for lunch and select your dinner while it's still swimming!

Civic Center and Hayes Valley Stately Beaux Arts buildings like the War Memorial Opera House and the domed, renovated City Hall are situated near the modern Louise M. Davies Symphony Hall and the Public Library's graceful Main Branch. The Asian Art Museum is also in the area, housed in the former Main Library building. Nearby Hayes Valley offers fine dining and apres-symphony toddies for concert-goers, as well as tastefully creative stores for clothing and gifts.

Cow Hollow and Union Street The most gracious, imposing homes of Cow Hollow (so named for its original bovine residents) are nestled against the Presidio where Pacific Heights dives to the Marina. Spectacular views are the norm. Straight, single yuppies pack the Balboa Cafe , Sushi Chardonnay , and other bars and restaurants on Fillmore and Union Streets. Clothes hounds can easily fritter away a day in Union Street's tasteful boutiques.

Downtown and Union Square Union Square is the heart of San Francisco's bustling and stylish downtown shopping district. Posh department stores such as Neiman Marcus and Macy's ring the one-block square park. Hundreds of other exclusive stores, boutiques and shopping centers, such as Westfield San Francisco Shopping Centre lie within a three-block radius of the square. If you've shopped till you've dropped, pick yourself up at an outdoor cafe in tiny Maiden Lane , and restore the soul at one of the many art galleries on Sutter and Geary Streets. This is also the home of San Francisco's modest Theater District.

Financial District and The Embarcadero "The Wall Street of the West:" Bank of America, Charles Schwab, and the Transamerica Corporation (in its landmark, 48-floor Pyramid ) are among the many banks and corporations headquartered here. The Embarcadero Center features dining, shopping, a fine art cinema, and a health club. Justin Herman Plaza is the site of many New Year's Eve bashes. The Embarcadero itself fronts the Bay for miles on either side of the imposing Ferry Building, modeled on the cathedral tower in Seville, Spain.

Fisherman's Wharf, Ghirardelli Square, and Aquatic Park Once the thriving center of San Francisco's fishing industry. Many fishing boats still dock at the Wharf, but Fisherman's Wharf today is more of an extended tourist trap. Pier 39 is fun thanks to the delightful colony of sea lions which annexed its boat marina. Aquatic Park features a beach, of sorts, and a long pier spiraling well out into the Bay. Old sea-dogs will enjoy adjacent Hyde Street Pier, where the tall ship Balclutha and other historic ships are docked, along with the Maritime Museum . Ghirardelli Square , a chocolate-factory-turned-shopping-and-restaurant-complex, features some of the city's better dining and views. Nice for an evening stroll.

Golden Gate Park With 1000 acres of gardens, meadows, lakes, golf, archery, and internationally recognized art and science museums, Golden Gate Park offers endless recreational possibilities for visitors and locals.

The deYoung Museum and the Japanese Tea Garden are some of the main attractions of the famous park, drawing millions of visitors each year. At the western edge of the park, Ocean Beach, although unappealing for swimming, attracts hard-core surfers with its rough, frigid and unpredictable waves.

Lower Haight The area around Haight and Fillmore feels at once more bohemian and less unsavory than the Haight Ashbury to the west. Ethnic restaurants, unpretentious cafes, and independent bookstores are mushrooming in this neighborhood. The youngish street life is lively on nights and weekends.

Nob Hill & Russian Hill On impossibly steep Nob Hill, California's early industrialists built fabulous mansions that looked down upon the rest of San Francisco. While only the imposing Flood Mansion remains—now the Pacific Union Club—the area's five-star hotels bear the names of other Nob Hill denizens: The Mark Hopkins , the Renaissance Stanford Court Hotel , and the Huntington . Facing Huntington Park is Grace Cathedral , a 3/4 replica of Paris' Notre Dame. Adjoining Nob Hill is Russian Hill, where San Francisco's old money has a great view of the Bay. The "Crookedest Street in the World" resides here and snakes down Russian Hill for the 1000 block of Lombard Street . The traffic is generally impossible—walk it!

North Beach and Telegraph Hill Originally settled by Italians, North Beach became a magnet for Beat Generation writers and poets in the 1950s. City Lights Bookstore and the cafes and shops on upper Grant Avenue still exude Beatnik funkiness. A new wave of entrepreneurial Italians has brought a sense of Roman style to exciting new restaurants along Columbus Avenue. On Broadway, barkers still pull tourists and sailors into charmingly seedy strip joints. Clapboard sea captains' cottages and mossy flower gardens seem to dangle in space from the cliffs of Telegraph Hill. Coit Tower , at 210 feet, commands a stunning panorama from the hilltop. The boardwalk Filbert Steps leads from the Tower down through the Grace Marchand Gardens to Levi's Plaza Park at the base of the Hill.

Fillmore Street and Japantown Fillmore Street, Pacific Heights' commercial spur, features noteworthy restaurants, epicurean food, and antique shops, all attended by a lively trade from young professionals. Fillmore and Geary has become a popular nightlife destination, thanks to John Lee Hooker's Boom Boom Room , the Fillmore Auditorium , and the AMC Kabuki 8 Theater multiplex, a favorite for film festivals. Be advised that the neighborhood gets a bit sketchy to the south and west of Geary and Fillmore. The Kabuki 8 Theater and neighboring Kabuki Hot Springs are part of the Japan Center, the commercial heart of Japantown. A sort of miniature Ginza, the Japan Center features a 100-foot pagoda, bonsai gardens, sushi bars and other businesses. Each spring it holds the Northern California Cherry Blossom Festival .

Pacific Heights & Presidio Heights Stately homes and high-rent apartment buildings line the ridge high above Cow Hollow in old-money Pacific Heights. Genteel, renovated Victorians ring the peaceful Alta Plaza Park. Washington Street between Presidio and Arguello features exceptionally palatial residences. Those fortunate enough to live here shop for antiques and dine in quiet refinement on a few understated blocks of nearby Sacramento Street. San Francisco's largest synagogue, Temple Emanu-el , is to be found on Arguello Street.

SOMA Once an unglamorous stretch of warehouses with a seedy undercurrent, an exciting modern San Francisco has emerged in the area South of Market Street—SOMA. Conventions, art, and entertainment possibilities abound in the Moscone/YerbaBuena Center area. Locals can be seen at leisure at the South Park Cafe , Brain Wash (a cafe/performance space/laundromat), or other fashion-forward restaurants and watering holes.

South Beach/China Basin One of the city's most popular residential areas for young professionals, South Beach arose from a virtual wasteland at the southern end of the Embarcadero and the western edge of SoMa. Apartment complexes and boat marinas squeeze together between the foot of the Bay Bridge and SBC Park , the San Francisco Giants' waterfront baseball stadium. Warehouses and factories have either been converted into stylish lofts or are being razed in a swath of development extending down Third Street to the Mission Bay development.

Haight-Ashbury and the Panhandle This small, but densely concentrated cradle of the hippie movement has tried to retain much of its flower-power, peace and love appeal. While real Summer-of-Love generation hippies may be hard to find, young people, dreadlocked, skinheaded, or skateboard-crazy have continued to come to the Haight to break boundaries. The colorful bars and restaurants of upper Haight Street, however, are always packed with professional twenty-somethings. The annual Haight-Ashbury Street Fair is quite a scene. Architecture buffs will want to take a look at the regal Victorians on the Panhandle—the grassy, tree-lined strip extends east from Golden Gate Park along Fell and Oak Streets.

The Marina District Tanned, fit and energetic twenty-somethings run and rollerblade along the Marina Green, a vast expanse of grass fronting the Bay between two yacht harbors. Mountain bikers crowd cafes, restaurants, and brunch hangouts along busy Chestnut Street after Sunday morning rides to Mount Tamalpais. The graceful Palace of Fine Arts houses The Exploratorium , the one-of-a-kind, hands-on science museum—a must-see for those with kids. At the southern end of the Marina Green is Fort Mason Center , a waterside arts and cultural center.

The Mission District The nexus of Hispanic culture, and a mecca for edgy bohemians, the Mission now houses increasing numbers of young professionals and their sport utility vehicles. Mexican and Central American businesses line teeming Mission Street. Visit popular La Taqueria , and be assured that the wait is worth it. Along the Valencia Corridor, one block to the west, bars, cafes, and restaurants of every description lead to the buzzing 16th and Valencia hub. The neighborhood draws its name from nearby Mission Dolores , founded in 1776. The dolled-up, postcard-perfect Victorians on Dolores Street are worth a look—in the daytime—from adjacent Dolores Park.

The Presidio 14,000 acres of forests and beaches, 75 miles of bicycle-friendly roads, a golf course, and scenic grandeur without end make this the jewel of the Golden Gate National Recreation Area. The Presidio was a military base from 1776 to 1994; antebellum Fort Point , under the Golden Gate Bridge , is a favorite for cannon enthusiasts, as well as for surfers, sailboarders, and Hitchcock aficionados (it's the site of Kim Novak's attempted suicide in Vertigo).

The Richmond District Fog-bound and quiet residential streets stretch to the Cliff House and Sutro Baths at the ocean, with the occasional Irish pub along the way. Some of the city's best Chinese restaurants are to be found in "Little Chinatown" on Clement Street, and Cyrillic lettering fills store windows around the imposing, gold-domed Holy Virgin Russian Orthodox Cathedral on outer Geary Boulevard. Exclusive Seacliff, home to Robin Williams and other celebrities, gives onto the Golden Gate next to Lincoln Park, site of the California Palace of the Legion of Honor and a spectacular golf course.

The Sunset A quiet and intensely foggy residential district, the principal attractions to the Outer Sunset are the San Francisco Zoo and the natural amphitheater at Stern Grove , where free concerts are held on summer Sundays. The Inner Sunset features a lively stretch of Irving Street, near 9th Avenue. Students from nearby UCSF Medical School crowd ethnic restaurants of every stripe, from Ethiopian to Thai.

Gambling capital, vacation paradise or premier business destination; these are all definitions of the city that never sleeps. Reality takes a hike when you enter the world of glittering casinos with their 24-hour gambling excitement. The scarcity of clocks adds to the fantasy of those taking time off from the real world. As a family vacation destination, the city offers the ultimate in entertainment for all ages. As a business destination, Las Vegas wins hands down with the volume of facilities and services available for either large conventions or small business get-togethers. Multitudes of upscale eateries are at your fingertips for a business lunch or dinner and after-hours entertainment is plentiful and diverse. Whether you are planning to move here, attend a business meeting, skydive, get married or just relax and enjoy, you will find Las Vegas to be a city like no other in the world.

The Strip: Las Vegas Boulevard The fabled three-mile area holds more hotel rooms than any other city in the world. You will find the most famous and remarkable resorts such as Bellagio with its Italian Renaissance aura and Caesars Palace , the glory of Rome, Vegas-style. Old standbys include the Flamingo Hilton and the Mirage , with its white tigers and erupting volcanoes. See the Paris Las Vegas with outstanding replicas of the Eiffel Tower, Arc de Triomphe and magnifique Parisian atmosphere and charm. Treasure Island offers daily live pirate battles, free of charge. At the "bottom" or south end of the strip, risen from the ashes of the Hacienda Hotel, now stands the magnificent Mandalay Bay with its tropical atmosphere and a pool with waves you can actually surf. At the top of the Strip, you will find the Stratosphere Tower visible from miles away. It is the highest free-standing building in the western half of the United States, with views from the top that are indescribable.

Downtown: Fremont Street The original Las Vegas, where people hung out in the '30s and early '40s, is still thriving, but with a new face known as the Fremont Street Experience . Some tourists actually prefer this area to the Strip because room prices are generally lower, it's an easy walk from one casino to the next and it's reminiscent of the early, nostalgic days of Las Vegas. In addition, there are famous hotels such as The Plaza (formerly known as Union Plaza), overlooking Fremont Street, and the classic Golden Nugget . For nostalgia buffs, there is also the Golden Gate Hotel Casino , renovated to its earlier classic glory and appearance and still famous for the 99-cent shrimp cocktail.

Off-Strip In recent years, hotels have sprouted up near the Strip, which are conveniently accessible by shuttle bus, taxi or car. Some of the better known of these are The Orleans , the Rio Suites and the Gold Coast on Flamingo. Further north on Sahara, is the Palace Station , the granddaddy of the Station Casinos with its original approach to fine buffet dining known as The Feast . To the east, there's the Las Vegas Hilton with the sprawling Convention Center. Further south, between Flamingo and Tropicana, east of the Strip, you will find the "must see" Hard Rock Hotel and Casino next to the original Hard Rock Cafe , each with its own fantastic giant neon guitar at the entrance.

Boulder Strip This has become something of a phenomenon in itself. The Boulder Highway was once a sprawl of small motels and businesses, leading from Fremont Street eventually out to the city of Henderson and beyond that to Boulder City and Boulder Dam, also known as Hoover Dam. But in recent years it's become the "Second Strip" with its proliferation of large, popular hotels and casinos including the Boulder Station Hotel and Casino , one of the first properties to offer child-care at a nominal fee for children of both guests and non-guests, and Sam's Town Hotel and Casino , which has become the high standard of western-theme resorts with its Mystic Falls Indoor Park .

North Las Vegas The city of North Las Vegas has the Las Vegas Motor Speedway , a major tourist attraction in itself, as well as Nellis Air Force Base, one of the strongest military bases in the United States and home to the flying Thunderbirds. As far as accommodations are concerned, there are several popular spots including The Fiesta and Texas Station Hotel and Casino . There is also the Santa Fe in northwest Las Vegas, which is unique for its Olympic-style Santa Fe Ice Arena .

Summerlin Located in the far northwest section of the Las Vegas valley, Summerlin is a planned community with homes, shops, recreational activities, festivals and concerts. A wonderful accommodation in this area is the Suncoast Hotel and Casino .

Beyond Las Vegas For day trips that are well worth your time, check out nearby Boulder City, Lake Mead and the Hoover Dam to the east and southeast. To the west, there is Red Rock Canyon and beyond that is Spring Mountain Ranch State Park.

Once just a village that settled on the "Ile de la Cité" (City Island) on the confluence of the Seine's two branches, Paris has vastly expanded over the centuries, taking the surrounding villages under its wing and making them its own. Nowadays the City of Light - a name Paris earned during the age of the Enlightenment - is made up of several arrondissments or districts, numbered from 1 to 20 and logically ordered with the 1st in the centre and the others following on in a clockwise spiral. The differences are vast and varied between the districts, both in terms of the populations and attractions, which together make up the multifaceted city we know and love.

1st: With its impressive collection of paintings and sculptures, the Louvre attracts visitors from the world over, who often combine it with a stroll in the adjoining Tuileries gardens. Designers of haute couture, including Yves St-Laurent and Dior, have set up shop in Faubourg Saint-Honoré , just a short walk from the majestic Place Vendôme , home to some of the finest jewelers in Paris. If luxury seems to be the prevailing feature in the 1st district, it has also lovingly accepted the Forum des Halles , the city's largest shopping centre.

2nd: With its little back streets harbouring galleries, cafés and boutiques, this district sets a typically Parisian scene. West of Rue Richelieu stands the theatre district where a dozen or so playhouses throng. The Palais Brongniart reminds by-passers of what used to be the location of Paris vibrant Stock market, while certain clothing factories in the Sentier district are now home to Internet companies.

3rd: The Marais district prides itself on being one of the oldest and best preserved in Paris. In keeping with this yearning for yesteryear, a museum charting the history of the capital ( Musée Carnavalet ) can also be found here. Scattered with trendy bars, cafés and stylish boutiques, the Marais has also become the Mecca of gay nightlife in Paris.

4th: Undoubtedly one of the most picturesque districts. Wander across the bridge opposite the Hôtel de Ville (town hall) and you will drift onto the capital's two islands - Île de la Cité and Île Saint-Louis where a visit to the stunning Notre-Dame Cathedral is an absolute must. Back on the right bank, Place des Vosges , a beautiful old square lined with ancient buildings, is a wonderful witness to times gone by, while the Beaubourg centre of contemporary art confirms its resolutely futuristic outlook.

5th: This and the adjoining 6th district comprise the Quartier latin (Latin Quarter), bastion of student life and higher education in Paris. Within a 100m radius around the Panthéon you'll find some of the most prestigious schools and universities in all of France. The Jardin des plantes , Paris' botanical gardens and zoo, is at once a calm and exotic place, and the Arènes de Lutèce (remains of a Roman amphitheatre) remind us just how rich the history of Paris really is. You'll find the Museum of the Middle Ages in Cluny Square. As picturesque as you could possibly imagine, the quaysides double as an enthralling treasure trove of second-hand bookstalls. Come nightfall, the young crowds flock to Place de la Contrescarpe and Rue Mouffetard.

6th: Rue de Seine, de Buci, Mazarine and Dauphine, along with the whole area between Boulevard St-Germain and the river Seine itself, are wholeheartedly characteristic of the allure of Paris. Discover the little cafés and boutiques of the chic-intellectual district of Saint Germain des Prés , and the bars and nightspots when the sun goes down. If on the other hand you want to escape, take some peaceful time out in Jardin du Luxembourg .

7th: More commonly known as the "quartier des ministres" (ministers' quarter), the 7th district also boasts some of Paris' most beautiful monuments - the Invalides , the Eiffel Tower , the Champ de Mars - literally meaning "Field of Mars", this was originally a parade ground for cadets in the Ecole Militaire (Military Academy). Between Quai Voltaire and Rue de l'Université, dozens upon dozens of antique dealers entice you into their shops on the Carré Rive Gauche, and if you are in an artistic frame of mind, the spectacular < Musée d'Orsay is well worth a browse.

8th: Naturally, any visit to the 8th district has to start on the most beautiful avenue in the world - the fabulous Champs-Elysées - which extends from Place de l'Etoile down to the finishing post on Place de la Concorde . Also worth seeing is La Madeleine - a neoclassical church - and jogger's paradise, the Parc Monceau . Music lovers will find heaven in a shopping trip along Rue de Rome. Other places of interest include the Grand Palais and the Palais de la Découverte (the Palace of Discovery), which makes the fascinating world of science accessible to all.

9th: Its impressive elegance makes the Opéra (opera house) undeniably one of Paris' most exquisite monuments. You can take in the waxworks at Musée Grévin , and stroll through Nouvelles Athènes (New Athens) near the St-Georges métro, but this area is also characterized by large department stores, including Printemps and Galeries Lafayette .

10th: Running the entire length of the Canal St-Martin , the Quais de Valmy and de Jemappes extend either side of the water to provide one of the most delightful walks in Paris; from Rue de la Temple to Place de Stalingrad you will pass many a lock and maybe the odd barge or two.

11th: Formerly the haunt of furniture craftsmen, the Bastille district now plays host to an entirely different scene: that of Paris' young and trendy in-crowd. Rue du Faubourg-St-Antoine has seen many restaurants and nightspots spring up and flourish. Neighbouring Rue de Lappe is probably the place to be seen on an evening, while others prefer the buzz of Rue Oberkampf a little further north.

12th: Paris' pleasure beach can be found here, between the Seine and the Place de la Bastille , where the imposing Opéra Bastille stands. The Palais Omnisport de Paris-Bercy serves as the venue for a variety of sporting and musical events, which often sell out very quickly, so be warned! Located to the far west of the city, but still within its limits, the Bois de Vincennes is a wonderful place to wander, especially around the lake.

13th: The easterly part of this district is known as "Chinatown", inhabited by numerous Chinese and Asian restaurants, shops and supermarkets. The Bibliothèque nationale de France (National Library) has also taken up residence in this area, overlooking the Quai de la Gare on the Seine. To the west of the district, meander through the small village of Buttee-aux-Cailles - an extraordinary find in the capital city.

14th: Rue d'Alésia stands out for its array of clothing shops, while Parc Montsouris is arguably one of the most charming green spots in the city. The Cité Internationale, where international students reside, stands just opposite and is well worth a visit as it features architectural styles from all over the world. Finally, you can take a look at the Bronze Lion of Belfort or at Rodin's Balzac in Place Denfert-Rochereau.

15th: Set along the banks of the Seine, the delightful André-Citroën Park in this district was, of course, named in honor of the famous car manufacturer, while a little further north, overlooking the river, you'll find Paris' skyline of skyscrapers peering down at a replica (or did this one come first?) of the Statue of Liberty.

16th: There's no denying that this is the most fashionable district of Paris. The Trocadéro offers a remarkable view of the city, as well as the Naval Museum ( Musée de la Marine ). Avenue Foch is destined to impress, as is Parc des Princes (Paris-Saint-Germain Stadium) . West of the ring road, roams the Bois de Boulogne forest, which although best avoided after dark, is a real delight during the day.

18th: The Basilique du Sacré-Coeur (the Basilica of the Sacred Heart) is another must-see monument in the City of Light. Looking up at the basilica from the market below is sure to take your breath away (as will all the steps you have to climb to reach it!). A short walk from the Sacré-Coeur takes you to Place du Tertre , drenched in the atmosphere of "old Paris" which cannot fail to captivate, even if it is teeming with tourists. Rue des Abesses, with its trendy boutiques and bars, draws a hipper kind of crowd alongside the famous Pigalle area - Paris' red light district, and home to a famous nightlife of cabarets and bars.

19th: The Cité des Sciences et de l'Industrie (Science and Industry Museum) was designed as Paris' window into the world of science. The Buttes Chaumont - an area of natural parkland - is the ideal place for a relaxing walk or a pic-nic.

20th: The most well-known cemetery in Paris, the Cimetière du Père-Lachaise is the final resting place of many famous artists, and is one of the most visited sites in the city. Memories of Jim Morrison are obviously still very much alive as his tomb is permanently carpeted with flowers. While the young artsy crowds of the city tend to hang out further and further to the east of the city - mainly in the Bastille district which is rapidly surrendering to consumerism - this area has managed to hold on to its working-class origins, hence its charm.

It's hard to describe Rome in a few words; a city so vast and rich in art, monuments and exquisite views, a historic city, which has preserved its charm and independence throughout the centuries.

Rome's history can be read in every monument, and palazzo; in fact, each and every stone bears witness to the periods of splendour, decay, wars, and numerous architectural styles. The city could be described as a gigantic open-air museum, visited each year by millions of tourists, scholars and pilgrims from all over the world.

It is hard to believe that Roman civilization began with a small settlement of shepherds and farmers near the Tevere river, on Palatino (one of the seven hills on which Rome was built and where most of the Roman archaeological treasures were found), tradition dictates that this is where Romulus founded the city and where Augustus, the first Emperor, built his house, which is now widely (and incorrectly) known as the house of Livia, his wife.

The city extended over six other hills: Quirinale, Viminale, Esquilino, Celio, Aventino and Capitolino.

Quirinale, the highest of the seven hills, has Piazza Omonima on its summit, with its colossal statues of the gods, Castor and Pollux and the Palazzo del Quirinale , where the president lives. Opposite the Palazzo are the Scuderie, open to the public thanks to the architect Gae Aulenti, who created a functional exhibition space inside the building.

Viminale stands next to Quirinale, it is smaller in size, split into two by Via Nazionale, and dominated by the huge Palazzo delle Esposizioni building (designed by Pio Piacentini) on Piazza della Repubblica , near Rome's principal railway station, Stazione Termini . Piazza della Repubblica is one of the most beautiful piazzas in Rome, surrounded by arches. The restored Fontana delle Naiadi takes pride of place in the centre of the square.

Esquilino is the home of the great poets Virgilio and Orazio. It has three peaks, one of which is Monte Oppio, where you can find the ruins of Domus Aurea , finally opened to the public after years of restoration. Initially, Esquilino was a suburb of Rome, which is the reason for the nickname 'exquilini' (non-tenants) given to its inhabitants, some believe that this is how the hill got its name.

Further south stand Celio and Aventino. The former has a long promontory, called Monte delle Querce, as it was once home to many oak trees (querce). It is possibly the greenest and most charming of the seven hills and is home to Parco del Celio and Villa Celimontana . There are many beautiful buildings here, especially along the magnificent Appia Antica . Almost all are places of worship. Both Aventino and Celio have few inhabitants. Aventino is rich in important medieval monuments such as the Santa Maria in Cosmedin basilica, where the famous Bocca della Verità, or mouth of truth, is housed.

Last but not least is Capitolino, which stands between Palatino and Quirinale: this used to be the religious and political centre of the city during the Roman era. It is dominated by the Michelangelo styled Piazza del Campidoglio , perfectly proportioned, with a statue of Emperor Marcus Aurelius on horseback in the centre. Located here, the Capitoline Museums , have some of the most precious art collections in the world.

The seven hilltops offer a number of beautiful views; the most breathtaking of these are Pincio , the dome of San Pietro (St. Peter's Basilica) and the Gianicolo.

Rome has spread outwards in a rather haphazard manner, without much regard to town planning; many fields were acquired by the local authorities and transformed into new neighbourhoods. North of Rome, near the Vatican are the Aurelio, Prati and Mazzini neighbourhoods, which are more commercial and residential, as well as the elegant quarters of Parioli and Nomentano, home to many foreign embassies. At nearby Montesacro, visit Ponte Nomentano , the storied fortified bridge that has seen the rise and fall of many eras. Neighbouring Monteverde is home to Villa Doria Pamphili , the largest park in all of Rome. Further south are Prenestino and Tiburtino, more populated areas, due to the fact that they are university areas, full of students, who can also be found in the nearby S. Lorenzo, a charming district with a wide variety of pizzerias and bars. Trastevere, is undoubtedly one of the most charming areas of the city, and one of the most crowded areas too - especially on summer evenings. Many people (foreigners and Romans alike) want to live in this highly desirable district, home of historic places of worship such as the Santa Maria in Trastevere and hot night spots like Trastè. Finally, Eur, one of Rome's most modern neighbourhoods, is home to some fascinating Fascist-style architecture, as evidenced by the many offices and administration centres in and around the Piazzale delle Nazioni Unite .

The State of Hawaii ( or ; Hawaiian: Mokuāina o Hawaii) is one of the United States, located on an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean southwest of the continental United States, southeast of Japan, and northeast of Australia. The state was admitted to the Union on August 21, 1959, making it the 50th state. Its capital is located in its major city, Honolulu on the island of Oahu. The most recent census puts the state's population at 1,211,537.
This state encompasses nearly the entirety of the volcanic Hawaiian Island chain, which is made up of hundreds of islands spread over 1,500 miles (2,400 km). At the southeastern end of the archipelago, the eight "main islands" are (from the northwest to southeast) Niihau, Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lānai, Kahoolawe, Maui, and Hawaii. The last is by far the largest, and is often called the "Big Island" or "Big Isle" to avoid confusion with the state. This archipelago is physiographically and ethnologically part of the Polynesian subregion of Oceania.
In standard American English, Hawaii is generally . In the Hawaiian language, it is generally or . Some residents of Hawaii use the Hawaiian pronunciation (with the glottal stop) in their English.

Geography

Location, topography, and geology

An archipelago situated some 3,200 kilometres (approx. 2000 miles) southwest of the North American mainland, Hawaii is the southernmost state of the United States and the second westernmost state after Alaska. Only Hawaii and Alaska are outside the contiguous United States and do not share a border with any other U.S. state.
Hawaii is the only state of the United States that

is not located in North America

is separated from the mainland by water

is completely surrounded by water

does not have a straight line in its State boundary

continuously grows in area (due to currently active lava flows, most notably from Kilauea (Kīlauea).)

Hawaii's tallest mountain, Mauna Kea stands at 13,796 feet (4,205 m) and is taller than Mount Everest if followed to the base of the mountain - on the floor of the Pacific Ocean.
All of the Hawaiian islands were formed by volcanos erupting from the sea floor from a magma source described in geological theory as a hotspot. The theory maintains that as the tectonic plate beneath much of the Pacific Ocean moves in a northwesterly direction, the hot spot remains stationary, slowly creating new volcanoes. This explains why only volcanoes on the southern half of the Big Island, and the Loihi Seamount (Lōihi) deep below the waters off its southern coast, are presently active, with Loihi being the newest volcano to form.
The last volcanic eruption outside the Big Island happened at Haleakala (Haleakalā) on Maui in the late 18th century (though recent research suggests that Haleakala's most recent eruptive activity could be hundreds of years older).
The volcanic activity and subsequent erosion created impressive geological features. The Big Island is notable as the world’s fifth highest island.
Because of the islands' volcanic formation, native life before human activity is said to have arrived by the "3 W's": wind (carried through the air), waves (brought by ocean currents), and wings (birds, insects, and whatever they brought with them). The isolation of the Hawaiian Islands in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, and the wide range of environments to be found on high islands located in and near the tropic, has resulted in a vast array of endemic flora and fauna. Hawaii has more endangered species per square mile and has lost a higher percent of its endemic species than anywhere else on Earth.
Areas under the control and protection of the National Park Service include:

Ala Kahakai National Historic Trail on the Big Island

Haleakala National Park in Kula

Hawaii Volcanoes National Park on the Big Island

Kalaupapa National Historical Park in Kalaupapa

Kaloko-Honokohau National Historical Park in Kailua-Kona

Pu'uhonua o Honaunau National Historical Park (Puuhonua o Hōnaunau) in Honaunau

Puukohola Heiau National Historic Site (Puukoholā) in Kawaihae

USS Arizona Memorial at Honolulu

Climate

The climate of Hawaii is typical for a tropical area, although temperatures and humidity tend to be a bit less extreme than other tropical locales due to the constant trade winds blowing from the east. Summer highs are usually in the upper 80s°F, (around 31°C) during the day and mid 70s, (around 24 °C) at night. Winter temperatures during the day are usually in the low to mid 80s, (around 28 °C) and (at low elevation) seldom dipping below the mid 60s (18 °C) at night. Snow, although not usually associated with tropics, falls at the higher elevations of Mauna Kea (13,796 feet/ 4,205 meters) and Mauna Loa on the Big Island in some winter months. Snow only rarely falls on Maui's Haleakala. Mount Waiʻaleʻale (Waialeale), on the island of Kauai, is notable for rainfall, as it has the second highest average annual rainfall on Earth, about 460 inches (38 ft. 4 in., or 11.7 m). Most of Hawaii has only two seasons. Summer is the first which is from May to October, and Winter is from October to April.
Local climates vary considerably on each island, grossly divisible into windward (Koolau) and leeward (Kona) areas based upon location relative to the higher mountains. Windward sides face the Northeast Trades and receive much more rainfall; leeward sides are drier and sunnier, with less rain and less cloud cover. This fact is utilized by the tourist industry, which concentrates resorts on sunny leeward coasts.

kona low

Hurricanes are a rare occurrence in Hawaii, although it is probable that all the islands of Hawaii have been hit by a hurricane in the past. The worst hurricane to hit Hawaii was Hurricane Iniki (Iniki) in 1992, which showed that Hawaii was indeed vulnerable to a direct hit from a hurricane.

Important towns

The movement of the Hawaiian royal family from the island of Hawaii to Maui, and subsequently to Oahu, explains why certain population centers exist where they do today. The largest city, Honolulu, was the one chosen by Kamehameha III as the capital of his kingdom because of the natural harbor there, the present-day Honolulu Harbor.
Now the state capital, Honolulu is located along the southeast coast of Oahu. The previous capital was Lahaina, Maui. Some major towns are Hilo, Kāne'ohe (Kāneohe), Kailua, Pearl City, Waipahu, Kahului, Kailua-Kona, Kihei (Kīhei), and Lihue (Līhue).

Notable features

The Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument was proclaimed by President George W. Bush on June 15, 2006, under the 1906 Antiquities Act. The monument covers roughly 140,000 square miles (360,000 km²) of reefs, atolls and shallow and deep sea (out to offshore) in the Pacific Ocean, larger than all of America’s National Parks combined.

History

The earliest habitation supported by archaeological evidence dates to the 4th century, probably by Polynesian settlers from the Marquesas, followed by a second wave of migration from Raiatea and Bora Bora in the 11th century. The first recorded European contact with the islands was in 1778 by British explorer James Cook. Substantial evidence (Stokes 1932 for example) exists, however, of earlier Spanish, and possibly Irish, visits to Hawaii. Hawaii is one of three U.S. States that were independent nations prior to joining the United States - Vermont Republic, 1791; or being annexed by it - Republic of Texas, 1845; and Hawai`i. Of these, Hawai`i and Texas were the only ones with formal international diplomatic recognition. The Kingdom of Hawaii existed from 1810 until 1893 when the monarchy was overthrown. It was an independent republic under American rule from 1894 until 1898. It was annexed by the United States in 1898, became a territory in 1900, and has been a state since 1959.

Hawaiian antiquity

Anthropologists believe that Polynesians from the Marquesas and possibly the Society Islands first populated the Hawaiian Islands at some time between 300 and 500 AD. There is a great deal of dispute regarding these dates.
Archaeologists and historians also differ as to whether there were one or two waves of colonization. It is believed by some authors that there had been an early settlement from the Marquesas and a later wave of immigrants from Tahiti, circa 1000, who were said to have introduced a new line of high chiefs, the introduction of the Kapu system, the practice of human sacrifice and the onset of building of Hieau's. This later immigration is detailed in folk tales about Paao (Pāʻao). Other authors, however, have argued that there is no archaeological or linguistic evidence whatsoever for a later influx of Tahitian settlers and that Paao must be regarded as a myth. Since there are still many supporters of the Paao narrative, this topic is still hotly disputed.
Leaving aside the question of Paao and the history of the Royal Hawaiian lineage, historians agree that the history of the islands was marked by a slow but steady growth in population and the size of chiefdoms, which grew to encompass whole islands. Local chiefs, called aliis (aliʻi), ruled their settlements and fought to extend their sway and defend their communities from predatory rivals. This was conducted in a system of aliis of various ranks somewhat similar to Feudalism.

European contact

The 1778 arrival of British explorer James Cook is usually taken to be Hawaii’s first contact with European explorers. Cook plotted and published the geographical coordinates of the Hawaiian Islands, so that they could be found again. Cook named his discovery the Sandwich Islands in honor of one of his sponsors, John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, and reported the native name as Owyhee.
Cook visited the Hawaiian islands twice. During his second visit - in 1779 - he attempted to abduct a Hawaiian chief and hold him as ransom for return of a ship’s boat that was stolen by a different minor chief; the chief’s supporters fought back, and Cook was killed.
After Cook’s visit and the publication of several books relating his voyages, the Hawaiian islands received many European visitors: explorers, traders, and eventually whalers who found the islands a convenient harbor and source of fresh food. Early British influence can still be seen from the design of the local Flag of Hawaii which has the British Union Flag in the corner. Visitors introduced diseases to the formerly isolated islands, and the Hawaiian population plunged precipitously. American missionaries arrived in 1820 and eventually converted the chiefs and the remaining population to Protestant Christianity.

Hawaiian kingdom

During the 1780s and 1790s the chiefs were constantly fighting for power. After a series of battles that ended in 1795 and forced cession of the island of Kauai in 1810, all of the inhabited islands were subjugated under a single ruler who would become known as King Kamehameha the Great. He established the House of Kamehameha, a dynasty that ruled over the kingdom until 1872.
The death of the bachelor King Kamehameha V - who did not name an heir - resulted in the popular election of Lunalilo over Kalakaua (Kalākaua). After Lunalilo’s death, in a hotly contested and allegedly fraudulent election by the legislature in 1874 between Kalakaua and Emma (which led to riots and the landing of U.S. and British troops to keep the peace), governance was passed on to the House of Kalākaua.
In 1887, under the influence of Walter M. Gibson, a group of primarily American and European businessmen, including kingdom subjects and members of the Hawaiian government forced Kalākaua to sign the derisively nicknamed "Bayonet Constitution" which stripped the king of administrative authority, eliminated voting rights for Asians and set minimum income and property requirements for American, European and native Hawaiian voters, essentially limiting the electorate to wealthy elite Americans, Europeans and native Hawaiians. King Kalakaua reigned until his death in 1891. His sister, Liliuokalani (Liliuokalani), succeeded him to the throne and ruled until her overthrow in 1893.

Overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy

In 1893, Queen Liliuokalani announced plans to establish a new constitution that would have replaced the so-called "Bayonet Constitution" that was established during the reign of King Kalakaua by American and European residents under threat of violence. The new constitution would have restored much power to the monarchy, but this was opposed by (mainly foreign) business elites. On January 14, 1893, a group of American and Europeans formed a Committee of Safety in opposition to the Queen, and seized control of government. United States Government Minister John L. Stevens, responding to a request from the Committee of Safety expressing concern about possible violence directed against American citizens, summoned a company of uniformed U.S. Marines to come ashore to enforce neutrality. As one historian noted, the presence of these troops effectively made it impossible for the monarchy to protect itself.
The overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani was successful and the monarchy ended in January 1893. It was replaced by a Provisional Government composed of members of the Committee of Safety. There was much controversy in the following years as the queen tried to regain her throne. The administration of President Grover Cleveland commissioned the Blount Report, which concluded that the overthrow of Liliuokalani was illegal. The U.S. Government first demanded that Queen Liliuokalani be reinstated, but the Provisional Government refused. Congress responded to Cleveland's referral with another investigation, and submitted the Morgan Report by the U.S. Senate on February 26, 1894, which found all parties (including Minister Stevens) with the exception of the queen "not guilty" from any responsibility for the overthrow. The accuracy and impartiality of both the Blount and Morgan reports has been questioned by partisans on both sides of the historical debate over the events of 1893.
In 1993, a joint Apology Resolution regarding the overthrow was passed by Congress and signed by President Clinton, apologizing for the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom.

Republic of Hawaii

The Republic of Hawaii was the formal name of Hawaii from 1894 to 1898 when it was run as a republic. The republic period occurred between the administration of the Provisional Government of Hawaii which ended on July 4, 1894 and the adoption of the Newlands Resolution in Congress in which the Republic was annexed to the United States and became the Territory of Hawaii on July 7, 1898.

U.S. Territory

When William McKinley won the presidential election in November of 1896, the question of Hawaii’s annexation to the U.S. was again opened. The previous president, Grover Cleveland, was a friend of Queen Liliuokalani. He had remained opposed to annexation until the end of his term, but McKinley was open to persuasion by U.S. expansionists and by annexationists from Hawaii. He agreed to meet with a committee of annexationists from Hawaii, Lorrin Thurston, Francis Hatch and William Kinney. After negotiations, in June of 1897, McKinley agreed to a treaty of annexation with these representatives of the Republic of Hawaii. The president then submitted the treaty to the U.S. Senate for approval.
Despite some opposition in the islands, the Newlands Resolution was passed by the House June 15, 1898, by a vote of 209 to 91, and by the Senate on July 6, 1898, by a vote of 42 to 21, annexing Hawaii as a U.S. territory. Its legality continues to be questioned because it was a United States Government resolution, not a treaty of cession or conquest as is required by international law. Both houses of the American Congress carried the measure with two-thirds majorities.
In 1900, Hawaii was granted self-governance and retained ʻIolani Palace as the territorial capitol building. Though several attempts were made to achieve statehood, Hawaii remained a territory for sixty years. Plantation owners, such as the Big Five, found territorial status convenient, enabling them to continue importing cheap foreign labor; such immigration was prohibited in various states of the U.S.
The power of the plantation owners was finally broken by activist descendants of original immigrant laborers. Because they were born in a U.S. territory, they were legal U.S. citizens. Expecting to gain full voting rights, they actively campaigned for statehood for the Hawaiian Islands.

U.S. Statehood

In March 1959, both houses of Congress passed the Hawaii Admission Act and U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed it into law. (The act excluded Palmyra Atoll, part of the Kingdom and Territory of Hawaii, from the new state.) On June 27 of that year, a referendum was held asking residents of Hawaii to vote on accepting the statehood bill. Hawaii voted at a ratio of 17 to 1 to accept. There has been criticism, however, of the Statehood plebiscite, because the only choices were to accept the Act or to remain a territory, without addressing the issues of legality surrounding the overthrow. Despite the criticism, the United Nations decolonization committee later removed Hawaii from the United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories.
After statehood, Hawaii quickly became a modern state with a construction boom and rapidly growing economy. The Hawaii Republican Party, which was strongly supported by the plantation owners, was voted out of office. In its place, the Democratic Party of Hawaii dominated state politics for forty years.
In recent decades, the state government has implemented programs to promote Hawaiian culture. The Hawaii State Constitutional Convention of 1978 incorporated as state constitutional law specific programs such as the creation of the Office of Hawaiian Affairs to promote the indigenous Hawaiian language and culture.

Education

Hawaii is currently the only state in the union with a unified school system statewide. Policy decisions are made by the fourteen-member state Board of Education, with thirteen members elected for four-year terms and one non-voting student member. The Board of Education sets statewide educational policy and hires the state superintendent of schools, who oversees the operations of the state Department of Education. The Department of Education is also divided into seven districts, four on Oahu and one for each of the other counties.
The structure of the state Department of Education has been a subject of discussion and controversy in recent years. The main rationale for the current centralized model is equity in school funding and distribution of resources: leveling out inequalities that would exist between highly populated Oahu and the more rural Neighbor Islands, and between lower-income and more affluent areas of the state. This system of school funding differs from many localities in the United States where schools are funded from local property taxes.
Policy initiatives have been made in recent years toward decentralization. Current Republican Governor Linda Lingle is a proponent of replacing the current statewide board with seven elected district boards. The Democratic-controlled state legislature opposed her proposal, instead favoring expansion of decision-making power to the schools and giving schools more discretion over budgeting. Political debate on structural reform is likely to continue for the foreseeable future.

Schools and academies

As stated above, the Hawaii State Department of Education operates all of the public schools in the State of Hawaii.
Hawaii has the distinction of educating more students in independent institutions of secondary education than any other state in the United States. It also has four of the largest independent schools: Iolani School, Kamehameha Schools, Mid-Pacific Institute, and Punahou School, Saint Louis High School, and Maryknoll School. The second Buddhist high school in the United States, and first Buddhist high school in Hawaii, Pacific Buddhist Academy, was founded in 2003. (The first Buddhist high school in the United States was Developing Virtue Secondary School founded in 1981 in Ukiah, California.)
Both independent and charter schools can select their students, while the regular public schools must take all students in their district. For a comprehensive list of independent schools, see the . For a comprehensive list of public schools, see the .
The Kamehameha Schools, are especially notable for being (a) the only schools in the United States that openly grant admission to students based on ancestry, and (b) the wealthiest schools in the United States, if not the world, having the support of over six billion US dollars in estate assets.

Colleges and universities

Graduates of institutions of secondary learning in Hawaii often either enter directly into the work force or attend colleges and universities. While many choose to attend colleges and universities on the mainland or elsewhere, most choose to attend one of many institutions of higher learning in Hawaii.
The largest of these institutions is the University of Hawaii System. It consists of: (1) the flagship research university at Manoa (Mānoa); (2) two comprehensive campuses Hilo and West Oahu; and (7) seven Community Colleges. Students choosing private education attend Brigham Young University Hawaii, Chaminade University of Honolulu, Hawaii Pacific University, or University of the Nations.
The Saint Stephen Diocesan Center is a seminary of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu. For a comprehensive list of colleges and universities, see the .

Problems

It has been challenging for educators to learn what constitutes effective instruction for the large populations of children of non-native English-speaking immigrants, whose cultures are often different in many ways from that of the mainland U.S., whence most of the course materials come, and where most of the standards for schools are set.
The public elementary, middle, and high school scores in Hawaii tend to be below average on national tests as mandated under the No Child Left Behind Act. Some of this can be attributed to the Hawaii State Board of Education requiring all eligible students to take these tests and reporting all student test scores unlike, for example, Texas and Michigan. Results reported in August 2005 indicate that two-thirds of Hawaii’s schools failed to reach federal minimum performance standards in math and reading (of 282 schools across the state, 185 failed).
On the other hand, results of the ACT college placement tests show that Hawaii class of 2005 seniors scored slightly above the national average (21.9 compared with 20.9) (Honolulu Advertiser, Aug. 17, 2005, p. B1). It should be noted that fewer students take the ACT examination than take the more widely accepted SAT examination. On the SAT, Hawaii’s college bound seniors tend to score below the national average in all categories except math.

Law and government

The state government of Hawaii is modeled after the federal government with adaptations originating from the kingdom era of Hawaiian history. As codified in the Constitution of Hawaii, there are three branches of government: executive, legislative and judicial.
The executive branch is led by the Governor of Hawaii and assisted by the Lieutenant Governor of Hawaii, both elected on the same ticket. The governor, in residence at the grounds of Washington Place, is the only public official elected for the state government in a statewide race; all other administrators and judges are appointed by the governor. The lieutenant governor is concurrently the Secretary of State of Hawaii. Both the governor and lieutenant governor administer their duties from the Hawaii State Capitol. The governor and lieutenant governor oversee the major agencies and departments of the executive of which there are twenty.
The legislative branch consists of the Hawaii Legislature - the twenty-five members of the Hawaii Senate led by the President of the Senate and the fifty-one members of the Hawaii House of Representatives led by the Speaker of the House. They also govern from the Hawaii State Capitol. The judicial branch is led by the highest state court, the Hawaii State Supreme Court, which uses Aliiolani Hale (Aliiōlani Hale) as its chambers. Lower courts are organized as the Hawai'i State Judiciary.
The state is represented in the United States Congress by a delegation of four members. They are the senior and junior United States Senators, the representative of Hawaii's 1st congressional district and the representative of Hawaii's 2nd congressional district. Many Hawaii residents have been appointed to administer other agencies and departments of the federal government by the President of the United States. All federal officers of Hawaii administer their duties locally from the Prince Kuhio Federal Building (Kūhiō) near the Aloha Tower and Honolulu Harbor.
Hawaii has supported Democrats in 10 of the 12 presidential elections in which it has participated. In 2004, John Kerry won the state’s 4 electoral votes by a margin of 9 percentage points with 54% of the vote. Every county in the state supported the Democratic candidate.
The Prince Kuhio Federal Building also houses agencies of the federal government such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Internal Revenue Service and the United States Secret Service. The building is the site of the federal courts and the offices of the United States Attorney for the District of Hawaii, principal police officer of the United States Department of Justice in the United States District Court for the District of Hawaii.
Unique to Hawaii is the way it has organized its municipal governments. There are no incorporated cities in Hawaii except Honolulu County. All other municipal governments are administered at the county level. The county executives are the Mayor of Hawaii, Mayor of Honolulu, Mayor of Kauai and Mayor of Maui. All mayors in the state are elected in nonpartisan races.
The officers of the federal and state governments have been historically elected from the Democratic Party of Hawaii and the Hawaii Republican Party. Municipal charters in the state have declared all mayors to be elected in nonpartisan races.

Miscellaneous topics

Etymology

The Hawaiian language word Hawaii derives from Proto-Polynesian

Sawaiki, with the reconstructed meaning "homeland"; cognate words are found in other Polynesian languages, including Māori (Hawaiki), Rarotongan (Avaiki), and Samoan (Savaii). (See also Hawaiki).

According to Pukui and Elbert (1986:62) "Elsewhere in Polynesia, Hawaii or a cognate is the name of the underworld or of the ancestral home, but in Hawaii the name has no meaning; see Pukui, Elbert, and Mookini, 1974." (emphasis added)

Media

Newspapers

Two major competing Honolulu-based newspapers serve all of Hawaii. The Honolulu Advertiser is owned by Gannett Pacific Corporation while the Honolulu Star-Bulletin is owned by Black Press of British Columbia in Canada. Other locally published newspapers are available to residents of the various islands.
The Hawaii business community is served by the Pacific Business News and Hawaii Business Magazine. The largest religious community in Hawaii is served by the Hawaii Catholic Herald. Honolulu Magazine is a popular magazine that offers local interest news and feature articles.
Founded in 2002, the online daily newspaper Hawaii Reporter has become a significant resource to residents and mainlanders that specifically offers non-advertiser based, investigative reporting on local and state government and businesses.
Apart from the mainstream press, the state also enjoys a vibrant ethnic publication presence with newspapers for the Chinese, Filipino, Japanese, Korean and Native Hawaiian communities. In addition, there is an alternative weekly, the Honolulu Weekly.

Television

All of the major American broadcast television networks are represented in Hawaii through KHON-TV (Fox, The CW on DT2), KITV (ABC), KFVE (MyNetworkTV), KGMB (CBS), KHET (PBS), KHNL (NBC), and KPXO (ION Television), among others. Two independent stations, KIKU-TV and KBFD, specialize in multi-cultural programs serving Asian audiences. From Honolulu, programming at these stations can be seen on the various other islands via networks of satellite transmitters and through Oceanic Time Warner Cable. Until the advent of satellite, most network programming was broadcast a week behind mainland scheduling.
Unlike most major television stations in most (if not all) other areas of the United States, none of the major network affiliates in Honolulu air an afternoon newscast. This allows the networks' daytime programming to be aired without preemption.
The various production companies that work with the major networks have produced television series and other projects in Hawaii. Most notable were police dramas like Magnum P.I. and Hawaii Five-O. Currently, hit TV shows Lost and Dog the Bounty Hunter are filmed in the Hawaiian Islands. A comprehensive list of such projects can be seen at the list of Hawaii television series.

Film

Hawaii has a growing film industry administered by the state through the Hawaii Film Office. Several television shows, movies, and various other media projects were produced in the Hawaiian Islands, taking advantage of the natural scenic landscapes as backdrops. Notable films produced in Hawaii or inspired by Hawaii include Hawaii, Blue Hawaii, Donovan's Reef, From Here to Eternity, In Harm's Way, South Pacific, Raiders of the Lost Ark, Jurassic Park, Picture Bride, Lani Loa, Outbreak, Waterworld, Six Days Seven Nights, George of the Jungle, 50 First Dates, Pearl Harbor,Godzilla, Blue Crush, The Even Stevens Movie, Race the Sun and Lilo and Stitch. The film Snakes on a Plane takes place on a flight departing Hawaii for the U.S. mainland. Hawaii is home to a prominent film festival known as the Hawaii International Film Festival.

Culture

The aboriginal culture of Hawaii is Polynesian. Hawaii represents the northernmost extension of the vast Polynesian triangle of the south and central Pacific Ocean. While traditional Hawaiian culture remains only as vestiges influencing modern Hawaiian society, there are reenactments of the ceremonies and traditions throughout the islands. Some of these cultural influences are strong enough to have affected the culture of the United States at large, including the popularity (in greatly modified form) of luaus and hula.

Customs and etiquette in Hawaii

East Hawaii Cultural Center

Folklore in Hawaii

Hawaiian mythology

Hilo Art Museum

List of Hawaiian state parks

List of Hawaii-related topics

Literature in Hawaii

Music of Hawaii

Polynesian Cultural Center

Polynesian mythology

Tourism in Hawaii

Sister cities

Hawaii has an active sister state program, which includes ties to:

Azores, Portugal (1982)

Cebu, Philippines (1996)

Cheju Province, South Korea (1986)

Ehime, Japan (2003)

Fukuoka, Japan (1981)

Guangdong, China (1985)

Hainan, China (1992)

Hiroshima, Japan (1997)

Ilocos Norte, Philippines (2005)

Ilocos Sur, Philippines (1985)

Okinawa, Japan (1985)

Pangasinan, Philippines (2002)

Taiwan, Republic of China (1993)

Tianjin, China (2002)

Other sister states:

Canary Islands, Spain

Famous people from Hawaii

The list of famous people from Hawaii is a non-comprehensive list of persons who have achieved fame that presently or at one time claimed Hawaii as their home. Separate registers of members of the and Hawaii politicians are also available.

External links

Hawaii Internet Portal

Hawaii's Official Tourism Site

Official state homepage

Hawaii State Fact Sheet from the U.S. Department of Agriculture

USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Hawaii

Satellite image of Hawaiian Islands at NASA's Earth Observatory

http://www.netstate.com/states/intro/hi_intro.htm

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The various and diverse "villages" of London reflect the full spectrum of the city's residents. From exclusively elite establishments to downright dingy dives, tourist-drenched terrain and home-grown habitation, there's something for every visitor. As Dr Johnson said back in the 18th century: "If you're tired of London, you're tired of life."

Battersea & Clapham - Home to hoards of trendy young things, Battersea & Clapham is the place to go for fun and funky bars and restaurants outside of central London.

Bayswater & Paddington - Famous for its train station and the Peruvian bear named after it (the marmalade sandwich-munching Paddington Bear), this area is a good bet for affordable accommodation that's close to the tranquillity of Hyde Park and Kensington Gardens.

Bloomsbury, Fitzrovia & Euston - Bloomsbury is London's literary capital and a walking tour is the best way to discover the haunts of the city's wordy geniuses. A visit to the area is not complete without a wander in the hallowed halls of London's biggest tourist lure – the British Museum .

Brixton - Reggae beats and spicy treats prevail in London's largest Afro-Caribbean community. Once a shabby, no-go area, it is now frequented by all kinds of people, including trendy, affluent types who hang out in the myriad of cool bars and happening clubs. The wonderful cultural diversity is visible in the bustling, popular market, and the famous Fridge nightclub.

Camden - Crowded streets spill over with shoppers and people-watchers who flock from far and wide to chill out, rather than haggle, at Camden Market . But good cafes, clubs and a top comedy venue make Camden much more than a great market area.

The City & Square Mile - England's coffers are literally in the Square Mile; one of the few places where the streets might as well be paved with gold. Modern structures like the Lloyd's Building , outnumber the more ancient edifices such as the Bank of England and the Old Bailey . The City encompasses the sacred in St. Paul's Cathedral and the quotidian in Spitalfields Market and Leadenhall Market .

Clerkenwell & Shoreditch - This trendy area is rife with hip, sofa-strewn hangouts, swanky restaurants and galleries. Most of the action revolves around Hoxton Square but East London is always booming due to its proximity to the City. Once favoured only by struggling artists on the cutting edge, it's now a new media mecca with arty types and savvy techie upstarts providing a vibrant mix.

Covent Garden & Holborn - There's been a clamp down on street performers, but the open-air party atmosphere still pervades in Covent Garden's Piazza . The 18th century iron and glass former fruit and vegetable market has evolved gracefully and now houses fashion boutiques and other up-market stores. Stroll down Long Acre, Floral Street and the cobbled Neal Street or visit the Royal Opera House .

Docklands & Wapping - Heavily bombed during WWII, this area became the incarnation of 80s prosperity. Canary Wharf Tower dominates the skyline and the Canary Wharf area is one of the capital's greatest economic powerhouses. The Tower of London was a 16th century prison where some of Henry VIII's unlucky wives were beheaded. No longer so unfriendly, you can now view the fabulous Crown Jewels. Next, stroll outside and take in the stunning Tower Bridge .

Ealing - This is home to a beautiful active Benedictine Abbey, a large Polish community and the famous Ealing Studios where the Goons and Hitchcock produced their magic.

Greenwich - Otherwise known as zero degrees longitude and the home to Greenwich Mean Time. Take a boat trip down the Thames for a romantic day out or visit the National Maritime Museum , the imposing Royal Naval College , Cutty Sark , and the Thames Barrier Park .

Hammersmith, Shepherds Bush & Chiswick - Hammersmith and "Da Bush," as the area is sometimes more affectionately known, is a great place to come for a meal or night out away from the hustle and bustle of the city centre. A popular place for theatre, you can choose from the cosy Lyric Hammersmith , the top quality London Apollo or the fringe-style Bush Theatre .

Hampstead - Leafy suburbia with a charming village ambience. Steeped in literary history, the homes of poets, playwrights and actors of past and present are marked by endless blue plaques. An afternoon in Kenwood House or strolling on Hampstead Heath is worlds away from the noise and bustle of London.

Islington - Blair's home ground and a yuppie playground; Upper Street is one long stretch of restaurants and bars. Seek out antiques in Camden Passage or stroll along Regent's Canal and see why this corner of North London is spectacular.

Kensington & Chelsea - Darling! Chic boutiques, expensive restaurants, snooty aristocrats and models in slick sports cars haunt Brompton Cross, King's Road, Kensington High Street and its environs. The Earl's Court Exhibition Centre is always a hub of activity, and it's always a pleasure to cruise across the delightful Albert Bridge at night when it's all lit up.

Knightsbridge & Belgravia - The two reasons to shop in this area have to be Piccadilly Circus and Harrods . Down the road is the stunning Baroque Brompton Oratory , and be sure not to miss Kensington Church Street or Sloane Street.

Maida Vale & St John's Wood - An intriguing juxtaposition of massive houses and council estates gives this area a diverse ethnic and economic mix. Worth a visit if you fancy going a bit Mediterranean in the canals and cafés of Little Venice. It's also home to the venerable cricketing institute, Lord's Cricket Ground .

Marylebone & Regent's Park - Harley Street is renowned worldwide for its medical consultants and cosmetic surgeons. A stone's throw from Baker Street is Madame Tussaud's and Regent's Park . Wigmore Street hosts virtuosos at the legendary Wigmore Hall while the private Wallace Art Collection is housed in Manchester Square. Elegant Marylebone High Street has tasty gastronomic venues, high fashion boutiques, and an Aveda Lifestyle Store . The beautiful interior of St James' Church , around the corner in Spanish Place, was restored thanks to John Paul Getty III.

Mayfair - This district is full of refined hotels where affluent foreigners stay. The impressive 18th century edifices of Mayfair are resided in by people of fabulous wealth. First-class shopping can be found along Bond Street and you can pick up a gem or two at Sotheby's .

Notting Hill & Ladbroke Grove - This is a supremely hip district offers designer boutiques, retro shops, heavenly delicatessens, and the antique and bric-a-brac stalls of Portobello Road Market . The world famous Notting Hill Carnival at the end of August brings a Caribbean flavor to the streets– with hip-swaying dance troupes and general revelry. Fantastic café life, decadent bars, and superb restaurants satisfy the gourmands. The gospel choir at Kensington Temple is well-known for its soulful, arm-waving harmonies.

Putney - This district is comprised of riverside pubs, rowing clubs, and wealthy stockbrokers. Nearby Barnes is a similarly bucolic, quiet and upscale residential neighborhood.

Richmond - Richmond Park , is one of Europe's largest parks. 17th century Ham House , Kew Gardens' botanic splendour and Palladian Marble Hill House are all excellent reasons to venture beyond the centre of town. A fun day trip is to take a boat from the Pier to Hampton Court Palace ?

Soho & West End - This area is a vibrant fusion of trendy and tacky. It leads a promiscuous double life: a Red Light district, and a respectable drinking and dining area. Chinatown is vibrant and the area also offers a host of other cuisines- British, vegetarian, French, and Thai. Many Londoners congregate here for Chinese New Year- a very colorful spectacle.

Leicester Square and Piccadilly are full of tourist frenzy. The Square is home to several bright and shiny multiplexes and is no stranger to star-studded film premieres. There are a plethora of bars, pubs and clubs keep the punters happy. Stroll down Piccadilly - pop into Fortnum & Mason , take tea at the Ritz or shop along the sartorially elegant Jermyn and Regent Streets.

Southwark & Waterloo - In this district, visitors can watch Shakespearean actors pace the boards at the marvelous Globe Theatre . The Tate Modern further boosts the Southbank's shining cultural program. Foodies may wish to enter Butler's Wharf - a gastronomic temple. Don't miss the London Eye (also known as the Millennium Wheel) near Westminster Bridge. The gigantic Ferris wheel offers unrivaled views of London.

Westminster & St James's - The British Empire was ruled from Whitehall, but now it serves little more than the UK. Not surprisingly, civil servants and politicians abound in the vicinity. A big and bountiful Ben strikes out the hour, loud enough to wake the old Kings and Queens from their tombs in Westminster Abbey . Visitors should definitely check out the Pugin-designed Houses of Parliament situated along the beautifully illuminated river, and take a stroll in St. James's Park and Green Park .

Victoria & Pimlico - Dominated by train and coach stations, many visitors use Victoria as a staging post to Central London. However Pimlico is a little-known gem, well worth a visit.

Wimbledon - There's more to the Village than the Wimbledon Tennis Championships , although it does tend to dominate the summer months. There's a huge Common where you can ride horses or spot Wombles. You can also visit the Georgian Cannizaro House and the Wimbledon Windmill. This is where Baden-Powell invented scouting and Thomas Hughes wrote Tom Brown's Schooldays.

Florida is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. Most of the state is a large peninsula with the Gulf of Mexico on its west and the Atlantic Ocean on its east. Much of the state has a humid subtropical climate; southern Florida has a tropical climate. Florida was named by Juan Ponce de León, who landed on the peninsula on 2 April, 1513, during Pascua Florida (Spanish for "Flowery Easter," referring to the Easter season). Florida is the fourth most populous state in the country.

History

Archaeological research indicates that Florida had been inhabited for thousands of years before any European settlements. Of the many indigenous peoples, the largest known were the Ais, the Apalachee, the Calusa, the Timucua and the Tocobago tribes. Juan Ponce de León, a Spanish conquistador, named Florida in honor of his discovery of the land on April 2, 1513, during Pascua Florida, a Spanish term for the Easter season (Juan Ponce de León may not have been the first European to reach Florida; according to one report, at least one indigenous tribesman who he encountered in Florida in 1513 spoke Spanish.). From that date forward, the land became known as "La Florida" , although from 1630 until the 19th century Tegesta (after the Tequesta tribe) was the name of choice for the Florida peninsula following publication of a map by the Dutch cartographer Hessel Gerritsz in Joannes de Laet's History of the New World .
Over the following century, both the Spanish and French established settlements in Florida, with varying degrees of success. In 1559, Spanish Pensacola was established by Don Tristán de Luna y Arellano as the first European settlement in the continental United States, but it had become abandoned by 1561 and would not be reinhabited until the 1690s. French Huguenots founded Fort Caroline in modern-day Jacksonville in 1564, but the fort was conquered by forces from the new Spanish colony of St. Augustine the following year. After Huguenot leader Jean Ribault had learned of the new Spanish threat, he launched an expedition to sack the Spanish settlement; en route, however, severe storms at sea waylaid the expedition, which consisted of most of the colony's men, allowing St. Augustine founder Pedro Menéndez de Avilés time to march his men over land and conquer Fort Caroline. Most of the Huguenots were slaughtered, and Menéndez de Avilés marched south and captured the survivors of the wrecked French fleet, ordering all but a few Catholics executed beside a river subsequently called Matanzas (Spanish for 'killings').
The Spanish never had a firm hold on Florida, and maintained tenuous control over the region by converting the local tribes, briefly with Jesuits and later with Franciscan friars. The local leaders (caciques) demonstrated their loyalty to the Spanish by converting to Roman Catholicism and welcoming the Franciscan priests into their villages.
The area of Spanish Florida diminished with the establishment of English colonies to the north and French colonies to the west. The English weakened Spanish power in the area by supplying their Creek Indian allies with firearms and urging them to raid the Timucuan and Apalachee client-tribes of the Spanish. The English attacked St. Augustine, burning the city and its cathedral to the ground several times, while the citizens hid behind the walls of the Castillo de San Marcos.
The Spanish, meanwhile, encouraged slaves to flee the English-held Carolinas and come to Florida, where they were converted to Roman Catholicism and given freedom. They settled in a buffer community north of St. Augustine, called Gracie Real de Santa Teresa de Mose, the first completely black settlement in what would become the United States.
Great Britain gained control of Florida diplomatically in 1763 through the Peace of Paris. The British divided the colony into East Florida, with its capital at St. Augustine, and West Florida, with its capital at Pensacola. Britain tried to develop the Floridas through the importation of immigrants for labor, including some from Minorca and Greece, but this project ultimately failed. Spain regained the Floridas after Britain's defeat by the American colonies and the subsequent Treaty of Versailles in 1783, continuing the division into East and West Florida. They offered land grants to anyone who settled in the colonies, and many Americans moved to them.
After settler attacks on Indian towns, Seminole Indians based in East Florida began raiding Georgia settlements, purportedly at the behest of the Spanish. The United States Army led increasingly frequent incursions into Spanish territory, including the 1817 – 1818 campaign against the Seminole Indians by Andrew Jackson that became known as the First Seminole War. Following the war, the United States effectively controlled East Florida. In 1819, by terms of the Adams-Onís Treaty, Spain ceded Florida to the United States in exchange for the American renunciation of any claims on Texas and $5 million.
As settlement increased, pressure grew on the United States government to remove the Indians from their lands in Florida. To the chagrin of Georgia landowners, the Seminoles harbored and integrated runaway blacks, and clashes between whites and Indians grew with the influx of new settlers. In 1832, the United States government signed the Treaty of Payne's Landing with some of the Seminole chiefs, promising them lands west of the Mississippi River if they agreed to leave Florida voluntarily. Many of the Seminoles left at this time, while those who remained prepared to defend their claims to the land. White settlers pressured the government to remove all of the Indians, by force if necessary, and in 1835, the U.S. Army arrived to enforce the treaty.
The Second Seminole War began at the end of 1835 with the Dade Massacre, when Seminoles ambushed Army troops marching from Fort Brooke (Tampa) to reinforce Fort King (Ocala), killing or mortally wounding all but one of the 108 troops. Between 900 and 1,500 Seminole Indian warriors effectively employed hit and run guerrilla tactics against United States Army troops for seven years. Osceola, a charismatic young war leader, came to symbolize the war and the Seminoles after he was arrested at truce negotiations in 1837 and died in prison less than a year later. The war dragged on until 1842. The U.S. government is estimated to have spent between US$20 million and US$40 million on the war, at the time an astronomical sum. Even after three bloody wars, the U.S. failed to force all of the Seminole Indians in Florida to the West. Though most of the Seminoles were forcibly exiled to Creek lands west of the Mississippi, about 300, including Seminole leader Aripeka (Sam Jones), remained in the Everglades and refused to leave the native homeland of their ancestors. Their descendants remain there to this day.
On March 3, 1845, Florida became the 27th state of the United States of America. Its population grew slowly. White settlers continued to encroach on lands used by the Seminoles, and the United States government resolved to make another effort to move the remaining Seminoles to the West. The Third Seminole War lasted from 1855 to 1858, and resulted in the removal of most of the remaining Seminoles. By 1860 Florida had only 140,424 people, of whom 44% were enslaved. There were fewer than 1000 free people of color before the Civil War.
On January 10, 1861, before the formal outbreak of the Civil War, Florida seceded from the Union; ten days later, the state became a founding member of the Confederate States of America. The war ended in 1865. On June 25, 1868, Florida's congressional representation was restored.
Until the mid-twentieth century, Florida was the least populous Southern state. The climate, tempered by the growing availability of air conditioning, and low cost of living made the state a haven. Migration from the Rust Belt and the Northeast sharply increased the population. Economic prosperity combined with Florida's sudden elevation in profile led to the Florida land boom of the 1920s, which brought a brief period of intense land development before the Great Depression brought it all to a halt.
Florida's economy did not fully recover until World War II. Today, with an estimated population over 18 million, Florida is the most populous state in the Southeastern United States, the second most populous state in the South behind Texas, and the fourth most populous in the United States. The Census Bureau estimates that "Florida, now the fourth most populous state, would edge past New York into third place in total population by 2011".

Geography

Much of the state of Florida is situated on a peninsula between the Gulf of Mexico, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Straits of Florida. It extends to the northwest into a panhandle, extending along the northern Gulf of Mexico. It is bordered on the north by the states of Georgia and Alabama, and on the west, at the end of the panhandle, by Alabama. It is near several Caribbean countries, particularly the Bahamas and Cuba. Florida's extensive coastline made it a perceived target during World War II, so the government built airstrips throughout the state; today, approximately 400 airports are still in service. According to the National Drug Intelligence Center, Florida has 131 public airports, and more than 700 private airports, airstrips, heliports, and seaplane bases. Florida is one of the largest states east of the Mississippi River, and only Alaska and Michigan are larger in water area.
The Florida peninsula is a porous plateau of karst limestone sitting atop bedrock. Extended systems of underwater caves, sinkholes and springs are found throughout the state and supply most of the water used by residents. The limestone is topped with sandy soils deposited as ancient beaches over millions of years as global sea levels rose and fell. During the last Ice Age, lower sea levels and a drier climate revealed a much wider peninsula, largely desert. The Everglades, an enormously wide, very slow-flowing river encompasses the southern tip of the peninsula.
Because Florida is not located near any tectonic plate boundaries, earthquakes are very rare, but not totally unknown. In January, 1879, a shock occurred near St. Augustine, Florida. There were reports of heavy shaking that knocked plaster from walls and articles from shelves. Similar effects were noted at Daytona Beach, Florida south. The tremor was felt as far south as Tampa and as far north as Savannah, Georgia. In January 1880, Cuba was the center of two strong earthquakes that sent severe shock waves through the city of Key West, Florida. Another earthquake centered outside Florida was the great Charleston, South Carolina earthquake of 1886. The shock was felt throughout northern Florida, ringing church bells at St. Augustine and severely jolting other towns along that section of Florida's east coast. Jacksonville residents felt many of the strong aftershocks that occurred in September, October, and November of 1886. As recently as 2006, a magnitude 6.0 earthquake centered about southwest of Tampa in the Gulf of Mexico sent shock waves through southwest and central Florida. The earthquake was too small to trigger a tsunami and no damage was reported.
At 345 feet (105 m) above mean sea level, Britton Hill is the highest point in Florida and the lowest highpoint of any U.S. state. Much of the state is low-lying and fairly level; however, some places, such as Clearwater, feature vistas that rise 50 to 100 feet (15 – 30 m) above the water. Much of the interior of Florida, typically 25 miles (40 km) or more away from the coastline, features hills with elevations ranging from 100 to 250 feet (30 – 76 m). The highest point in peninsular Florida, Sugarloaf Mountain, is a peak in Lake County.
Areas under control of the National Park Service include:

Big Cypress National Preserve, near Lake Okeechobee

Biscayne National Park, in Miami-Dade County south of Miami

Canaveral National Seashore, near Titusville

Castillo de San Marcos National Monument, in St. Augustine

De Soto National Memorial, in Bradenton

Dry Tortugas National Park, at Key West

Everglades National Park in Southern Florida

Fort Caroline National Memorial, at Jacksonville

Fort Matanzas National Monument, in St. Augustine

Gulf Islands National Seashore, near Gulf Breeze

Timucuan Ecological and Historic Preserve, in Jacksonville

Areas under the control of the USDA United States Forest Service include:

Apalachicola National Forest along the east bank of the Apalachicola River,

Choctawhatchee National Forest near Niceville,

Ocala National Forest in Central Florida, and

Osceola National Forest in Northeast Florida.

Boundaries

The state line begins in the Atlantic Ocean, traveling west, south, and north up the thalweg of the Saint Mary's River. At the origin of that river, it then follows a straight line nearly due west and slightly north, to the point where the confluence of the Flint River (from Georgia) and the Chattahoochee River (down the Alabama/Georgia line) used to form Florida's Apalachicola River. (Since Woodruff Dam was built, this point has been under Lake Seminole.) The border with Georgia continues north through the lake for a short distance up the former thalweg of the Chattahoochee, then with Alabama runs due west along latitude 31°N to the Perdido River, then south along its thalweg to the Gulf via Perdido Bay. Much of the state is at or near sea level.

Climate

The climate of Florida is tempered somewhat by its proximity to water. The state has a humid subtropical climate, except for the southern part below Lake Okeechobee, which has a true tropical climate. Cold fronts can occasionally bring high winds and cool to cold temperatures to the entire state during late fall and winter. One such front swept through the peninsula on November 25, 1996, bringing cold temperatures and winds up to 95 miles per hour (150 km/h), knocking out power to thousands and damaging mobile homes. The seasons in Florida are actually determined more by precipitation than by temperature with mild to cool, relatively dry winters and autumns (the dry season) and hot, wet springs and summers (the wet season). The Gulf Stream has a moderating effect on the climate, and although much of Florida commonly sees a high summer temperature over 90 degrees Fahrenheit (32 °C), the mercury seldom exceeds 100 degrees Fahrenheit (38 °C). The hottest temperature ever recorded in the state was 109 °F (43 °C), set on June 29, 1931 in Monticello. The coldest was – 2 °F (−19 °C), on February 13, 1899, just 25 miles (40 km) away, in Tallahassee. Mean high temperatures for late July are primarily in the low 90s Fahrenheit (32 – 35 °C). Mean low temperatures for late January range from the low 40s Fahrenheit (4 – 7 °C) in northern Florida to the mid-50s (≈13 °C) in southern Florida.
The Florida Keys, surrounded by water, have a more tropical climate, with lesser variability in temperatures. At Key West, temperatures rarely exceed in the summer or fall below in the winter, and frost has never been reported in the Keys.
Florida's nickname is the "Sunshine State", but severe weather is a common occurrence in the state. Central Florida is known as the lightning capital of the United States, as it experiences more lightning strikes than anywhere else in the country. Florida has the highest average precipitation of any state, in large part because afternoon thunderstorms are common in most of the state from late spring until early autumn. A fair day may be interrupted with a storm, only to return to sunshine. These thunderstorms, caused by collisions between airflow from the Gulf of Mexico and airflow from the Atlantic Ocean, pop up in the early afternoon and can bring heavy downpours, high winds, and sometimes tornadoes. Florida leads the United States in tornadoes per square mile (when including waterspouts) but these tornadoes do not typically reach the intensity of those in the Midwest and Great Plains. Hail often accompanies the most severe thunderstorms.
Snow in Florida is a rare occurrence. During the Great Blizzard of 1899, Florida experienced blizzard conditions; the Tampa Bay area had "gulf-effect" snow, similar to lake-effect snow. The Great Blizzard of 1899 is the only time the temperature in the state is known to have fallen below 0 degrees Fahrenheit (−18 °C). The most widespread snowfall in Florida history happened on 19 January 1977, when snow fell over much of the state, as far south as Homestead. Snow flurries fell on Miami Beach for the only time in recorded history. A hard freeze in 2003 brought "ocean-effect" snow flurries to the Atlantic coast as far south as Cape Canaveral.
The 1993 Superstorm brought blizzard conditions to the panhandle, while heavy rain and tornadoes beset the peninsula. The storm is believed to have been similar in composition to a hurricane, and even brought storm surges of six feet or more to regions of the Gulf coast.
Although some storms have formed out of season, tropical cyclones pose a severe threat during hurricane season, which lasts from June 1 to November 30. Florida is the most hurricane-prone US state, with subtropical or tropical water on three sides and a lengthy coastline. It is rare for a hurricane season to pass without any impact in the state by at least a tropical storm. August to October is the most likely period for a hurricane in Florida.
In 2004, Florida was hit by a record four hurricanes. Hurricanes Charley (August 13), Frances (September 4 – 5), Ivan (September 16), and Jeanne (September 25 – 26) cumulatively cost the state's economy US$42 billion. In 2005, Hurricane Dennis (July 10) became the fifth storm to strike Florida within eleven months. Later, Hurricane Katrina (August 25) passed through South Florida and Hurricane Rita (September 20) swept through the Florida Keys. Hurricane Wilma made landfall in Florida in the early morning of October 24 as a Category 3 hurricane, with the storm's eye hitting near Cape Romano, just south of Marco Island, according to the National Hurricane Center.
Florida was the site of the second costliest weather disaster in U.S. history, Hurricane Andrew, which caused more than US$25 billion in damage when it struck on August 24, 1992. In a long list of other infamous hurricane strikes are the 1926 Great Miami Hurricane, the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane, the Labor Day Hurricane of 1935, Hurricane Donna in 1960, and Hurricane Opal in 1995. Recent research suggests the storms are part of a natural cycle and not a result of Global Warming.

Fauna

Florida is host to many types of wildlife including:

Marine Mammals : Bottlenose Dolphin, Pilot Whale, Northern Right Whale, Manatee

Reptiles : Alligator, Crocodile, Eastern Diamondback and Pygmy Rattlesnakes, Gopher Tortoise, Green & Leatherback Sea Turtles, Indigo Snake

Mammals : Panther, Whitetail Deer, Key Deer, Bobcats, Southern Black Bear, Armadillos

Birds : Bald Eagle, Crested Caracara, Snail Kite, Osprey, Pelicans, Sea Gulls, Whooping & Sandhill Cranes, Roseate Spoonbill, Florida Scrub Jay (State endemic), and many more. Note : Florida is a winter home for most species of eastern North American birds.

Since their accidental importation from South America into North America in the 1930s, the Red imported fire ant population has increased its territorial range to include most of the Southern United States, including Florida. They are more aggressive than most native ant species and have a painful sting.

Environmental issues

Florida ranks forty-fifth in total energy consumption per capita, despite the heavy reliance on air conditioners and pool pumps. This includes coal, natural gas, petroleum, and retail electricity sales. It is estimated that approximately 4% of energy in the state is generated through renewable resources. Florida's energy production is 6.0% of the nation's total energy output, while total production of pollutants is lower, with figures of 5.6% for Nitrogen Oxide, 5.1% for Carbon Dioxide, and 3.5% for Sulfur Dioxide.
It is believed that significant energy resources are located off of Florida's western coast in the Gulf of Mexico, but that region has been closed to exploration since 1981. Governor Charlie Crist and both of Florida's senators, Bill Nelson and Mel Martinez, oppose offshore drilling and exploration. Former governor Jeb Bush, originally opposed to all drilling, changed his position on a bill introduced introduced into the House of Representatives in 2005, which would allow unrestricted drilling 125 miles or more from the coast. Martinez, Nelson, and Crist opposed that bill, but Martinez and Nelson voted for a Senate alternative which prohibited drilling within 125 miles of the Panhandle coast, and 235 miles of the peninsular coast.
In July 2007, Florida Governor Charlie Crist announced plans to sign executive orders that would impose strict new air-pollution standards in the state, with aims to reduce so called "greenhouse-gas" emissions by 80 percent of 1990 levels by 2050. Crist's orders would set new emissions targets for power companies, automobiles and trucks, and toughen conservation goals for state agencies and require state-owned vehicles to use alternative fuels.
Red tide has also been an issue on the Southwest coast of Florida. While there has been a great deal of conjecture over the cause of the toxic algae bloom, there is no evidence that it is being caused by pollution or that there has been an increase in the duration or frequency of red tides.

Government

The basic structure, duties, function, and operations of the government of the State of Florida are defined and established by the Florida Constitution, which establishes the basic law of the state and guarantees various rights and freedoms of the people. The state government consists of three separate branches: judicial, executive, and legislative. The legislature enacts bills, which, if signed by the governor, become Florida Statutes.
The Florida Legislature comprises the Florida Senate, which has 40 members, and the Florida House of Representatives, which has 120 members. The current Governor of Florida is Republican Charlie Crist.
The Florida Supreme Court consists of a Chief Justice and six Justices.
There are 67 Counties in Florida, but some reports show only 66 because of Duval County, which is consolidated with the City of Jacksonville. There are 379 cities in Florida that report regularly to the Florida Department of Revenue, but there are other incorporated municipalities that do not. The primary source of revenue for the State government is sales tax, but the primary revenue source for cities and counties is property tax.
Florida was traditionally a Democratic state; at one time, 68.5 percent of all Floridians were registered Democrats. In the last decades of the twentieth century, the realignment of the "Solid South" has led many conservative Democrats of Florida to vote with the Republican Party. This tendency, combined with explosive population growth, which has brought many Republicans into the state as well as Cuban immigration has given Florida a Republican edge in practice. For instance, the Tampa area, once a major center of Democratic union support, is now almost evenly split between registered Republicans and Democrats, making it part of the important I-4 Corridor swing region. As a result, Republicans control the governorship and most other statewide elective offices: both houses of the state legislature, 16 of the state's 25 seats in the House of Representatives, and one of the state's two Senate seats. Because of the state's population and number of electoral votes, political analysts consider it to be a key swing state in presidential elections, which became obvious during the 2000 election where Florida played a key role in the election. In recent elections, people have tended to vote Republican in the Panhandle, Jacksonville, the southwest and in the predominantly Cuban areas near Miami. People have voted Democrat in Tallahassee, Gainesville and most of South Florida.

Education

Florida's public primary and secondary schools are administered by the Florida Department of Education.
The State University System of Florida manages and funds Florida's eleven public universities:
Supplementing the state's public university system is a network of 28 community colleges, with over 100 locations throughout the state. Florida's largest community college, Miami-Dade College, is the second-largest degree-granting institution in the United States, with over 160,000 students enrolled, and Broward Community College is among the 50 largest colleges and universities.
Florida has many private universities as well, the largest of which are Nova Southeastern University, University of Miami, Saint Leo University, and Barry University. The "Independent Colleges and Universities of Florida", a group representing 28 private colleges and universities, reported that their member institutions served over 121,000 students in the fall of 2005.

Sports

Although Florida is the traditional home to Major League Baseball's spring training, and nearly 2/3 of all MLB teams still have a spring training presence in the state, Florida did not have a permanent major-league-level professional sports team until the American Football League added the Miami Dolphins in 1966. The state now has three NFL teams, two MLB teams, two NBA teams, and two NHL teams. With two of its most historically-important teams, Florida is one of the most important markets for the Arena Football League. Golf, tennis and auto racing are also popular. Florida also hosts a variety of minor league baseball, football, basketball, ice hockey, soccer and indoor football teams.

Spring training

Florida is the traditional home for Major League Baseball spring training, with teams informally organized into the "Grapefruit League." As of 2004, Florida hosts the following major league teams for spring training:

Auto-racing tracks

Daytona International Speedway

Homestead-Miami Speedway

Sebring International Raceway

Streets of St. Petersburg

Walt Disney World Speedway

Sister states

Gyeonggi-do, South Korea

Languedoc-Roussillon, France

Nueva Esparta, Venezuela

Taiwan Province, Taiwan

Wakayama Prefecture, Japan

Western Cape, South Africa

External links

Florida Memory Project Over 300,000 photographs and documents from the State Library & Archives of Florida

Online collection of the Spanish Land Grants.

USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Florida

University of Florida Digital Collections Digital collections of texts and images, including Florida aerial photography, ephemeral photographs and postcards, letters, and more

U.S. Census Bureau

Economic and farm demographics fact sheet from the USDA

List of searchable databases produced by Florida state agencies hosted by the American Library Association Government Documents Roundtable.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia