California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. It is bordered by Oregon to the north, Nevada to the east, and Arizona to the southeast, as well as by Baja California in Mexico to the south. The most populous U.S. state, California's capital city is Sacramento, and its four largest cities are Los Angeles, San Diego, San Jose, and San Francisco. California is known for its varied climate and geography, as well as for its ethnically diverse population. The state is divided into 58 counties.
Before becoming a part of the United States, Alta California was colonized by the Spanish Empire, beginning in 1769. Alta California became a part of the newly independent nation of Mexico in 1821, and remained so until 1846. That year, an independent California Republic was declared. The Republic's first and only president was William B. Ide, who played a pivotal role during the Bear Flag Revolt. His term lasted twenty-five days and concluded when California was occupied by U.S. forces during the Mexican-American War. Under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo of 1848, Mexico formally ceded California to the United States. California was admitted to the Union as the 31st state on September 9, 1850.
California is the third largest U.S. state by land area; it contains a diverse geography, which ranges from the sandy and rocky beaches of the Pacific coast, to the rugged snow-capped Sierra Nevada mountains in the east, to desert areas in the southeast and the forests of the northwest. The center portion of the state is dominated by the Central Valley, one of the most productive agricultural areas in the world and the largest of any U.S. state. The Sierra Nevada mountains contain Yosemite Valley, famous for its glacially-carved domes, and Sequoia National Park, home to the giant sequoia trees, the largest living organisms on Earth. The state is home to Mount Whitney, the highest point in the contiguous United States, as well as the second lowest and hottest place in the Western Hemisphere, Death Valley. Many of the trees located in the California White Mountains are the oldest in the world; one Bristlecone pine has an age of 4,700 years.
The California Gold Rush began in 1848, dramatically changing California with a large influx of people and an economic boom. The early 20^th century was marked by Los Angeles becoming the center of the entertainment industry, in addition to the growth of a large tourism sector in the state. Along with California's prosperous agricultural industry, other industries include aerospace, petroleum, and computer and information technology. California ranks among the ten largest economies in the world, and were it a separate country, it would be 34^th amongst the most populous countries, just behind Poland, as well as the world's sixth-largest economy.

Etymology

The word California originally referred to the entire region composed of the current U.S. state of California, plus all or parts of Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and Wyoming, and the Mexican peninsula now known as Baja California.
The name California is most commonly believed to have derived from a storied paradise peopled by black Amazons and ruled by Queen Califia. The myth of Califia is recorded in a 1510 work The Exploits of Esplandian, written as a sequel to Amadís de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer García Ordóñez Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Califia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a remote land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts and rich in gold.

Geography and environment

California borders the Pacific Ocean, Oregon, Nevada, Arizona, and the Mexican state of Baja California. With an area of 160,000 mi² (411,000 km²) it is the third largest state in the United States in size, after Alaska and Texas. If it were a country, California would be the 59th largest in the world, between Iraq and Paraguay.
California's geography is rich, complex, and varied. In the middle of the state lies the California Central Valley, bounded by the coastal mountain ranges in the west, the Sierra Nevada to the east, the Cascade Range in the north and the Tehachapi Mountains in the south. The Central Valley is California's agricultural heartland and grows approximately one-third of the nation's food. Divided in two by the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta, the northern portion, the Sacramento Valley serves as the watershed of the Sacramento River, while the southern portion, the San Joaquin Valley is the watershed for the San Joaquin River; both areas derive its name from the rivers that transit them. With dredging, the Sacramento and the San Joaquin Rivers have remained sufficiently deep that several inland cities are seaports. The Sacramento-San Joaquin Bay Delta serves as a critical water supply hub for the state. Water is routed through an extensive network of canals and pumps out of the delta, that traverse nearly the length of the state, including the Central Valley Project, and the State Water Project. Water from the Sacramento-San Joaquin Bay Delta provides drinking water for nearly 23 million people, almost two-thirds of the state's population, and provides water to farmers on the west side of the San Joaquin Valley. The Channel Islands are located off the southern coast.
The Sierra Nevada (Spanish for "snowy range") include the highest peak in the contiguous forty-eight states, Mount Whitney, at 14,505 ft (4,421 m), Yosemite National Park, and the deep freshwater lake, Lake Tahoe, the largest lake in the state by volume. To the east of the Sierra Nevada are Owens Valley and Mono Lake, an essential migratory bird habitat. In the western part of the state is Clear Lake, the largest freshwater lake by area entirely in California. Though Lake Tahoe is larger, it is divided by the California/Nevada border. The Sierra Nevada falls to Arctic temperatures in winter and has several dozen small glaciers, including Palisade Glacier, the southernmost glacier in the United States.
About 35% of the state's total surface area is covered by forests, and California's diversity of pine species is unmatched by any other state. California contains more forestland than any other state except Alaska. In the south is a large inland salt lake, the Salton Sea. Deserts in California make up about 25% of the total surface area. The south-central desert is called the Mojave; to the northeast of the Mojave lies Death Valley, which contains the lowest, hottest point in North America, Badwater Flat. The distance from the lowest point of Death Valley to the peak of Mount Whitney is less than 200 miles (322 km). Indeed, almost all of southeastern California is arid, hot desert, with routine extreme high temperatures during the summer.
Along the California coast are several major metropolitan areas, including Greater Los Angeles, the San Francisco Bay Area, and San Diego.
California is famous for s due to a number of faults, in particular the San Andreas Fault. It is vulnerable to tsunamis, floods, droughts, Santa Ana winds, s, and landslides on steep terrain, and has several .

Climate

California climate varies from Mediterranean to subarctic. Much of the state has a Mediterranean climate, with cool, rainy winters and dry summers. The cool California Current offshore often creates summer fog near the coast. Further inland, one encounters colder winters and hotter summers.
Northern parts of the state average higher annual rainfall than the south. California's mountain ranges influence the climate as well: some of the rainiest parts of the state are west-facing mountain slopes. Northwestern California has a temperate climate, and the Central Valley has a Mediterranean climate but with greater temperature extremes than the coast. The high mountains, including the Sierra Nevada, have a mountain climate with snow in winter and mild to moderate heat in summer.
The east side of California's mountains has a drier rain shadow. The low deserts east of the southern California mountains experience hot summers and nearly frostless mild winters; the higher elevation deserts of eastern California see hot summers and cold winters. In Death Valley, the highest temperature in the Western Hemisphere, 134 °F (56.6 °C), was recorded July 10, 1913.

Ecology

Ecologically, California is one of the richest and most diverse parts of the world and includes some of the most endangered ecological communities. California is part of the Nearctic ecozone and spans a number of terrestrial ecoregions.
California's large number of endemic species includes relict species which have died out elsewhere, such as the Catalina Ironwood (Lyonothamnus floribundus). Many other endemics originated through differentiation or adaptive radiation, whereby multiple species develop from a common ancestor to take advantage of diverse ecological conditions such as the California lilac (Ceanothus). Many California endemics have become endangered, as urbanization, logging, overgrazing, and the introduction of exotic species have encroached on their habitat.
California boasts several superlatives in its collection of flora; the largest trees, the tallest trees, and the oldest trees. California's native grasses are perennial plants. After European contact, these were generally replaced by invasive species of European annual grasses; and, in modern times, California's hills turn a characteristic golden brown in summer.

Rivers

Arguably, the two most prominent rivers within California are the Sacramento River and the San Joaquin River, which drain the Central Valley and flow to the Pacific Ocean through San Francisco Bay. Two other important rivers are the Klamath River, in the north, and the Colorado River, on the southeast border.

History

Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, California was one of the most culturally and linguistically diverse areas in pre-Columbian North America; the area was inhabited by more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans. Large, settled populations lived on the coast and hunted sea mammals, fished for salmon, and gathered shellfish, while groups in the interior hunted terrestrial game and gathered nuts, acorns, and berries. California groups also were diverse in their political organization with bands, tribes, villages, and on the resource-rich coasts, large chiefdoms, such as the Chumash, Pomo and Salinan. Trade, intermarriage, and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups.
The first European to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was the Portuguese Joao Rodrigues Cabrilho, in 1542, sailing for the Spanish Empire. Some 37 years later, the English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed an undefined portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila Galleons on their return trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565. Sebastián Vizcaíno explored and mapped the coast of California in 1602 for New Spain.
Spanish missionaries began setting up twenty-three California Missions along the coast of what became known as Alta California (Upper California), together with small towns and presidios. The first mission in Alta California was established at San Diego in 1769. In 1821, the Mexican War of Independence gave Mexico (including California), independence from Spain; for the next twenty-five years, Alta California remained a remote northern province of the nation of Mexico. Cattle ranches, or ranchos, emerged as the dominant institutions of Mexican California. After Mexican independence from Spain, the chain of missions became the property of the Mexican government, and were secularized by 1832. The ranchos developed under ownership by Californios (Spanish-speaking Californians) who had received land grants and traded cowhides and tallow with Boston merchants.
Beginning in the 1820s, trappers and settlers from the United States and Canada began to arrive in Northern California, harbingers of the great changes that would later sweep the Mexican territory. These new arrivals used the Siskiyou Trail, California Trail, Oregon Trail and Old Spanish Trail to cross the rugged mountains and harsh deserts surrounding California. In this period, Imperial Russia explored the California coast, and established a trading post at Fort Ross.
In 1846, settlers rebelled against Mexican rule during the Bear Flag Revolt. Afterwards, rebels raised the Bear Flag (featuring a bear, a star, a red stripe, and the words "California Republic") at Sonoma.
However, the California Republic was to be short lived. The same year marked the outbreak of the Mexican-American War (1846-1848). When Commodore John D. Sloat of the United States Navy sailed into Monterey Bay and began the military occupation of California by the United States. Northern California capitulated in less than a month to the US forces.
Following a series of defensive battles in Southern California, including; The Siege of Los Angeles, the Battle of Dominguez Rancho, the Battle of San Pascual, the Battle of Rio San Gabriel and the Battle of La Mesa, the Treaty of Cahuenga was signed by the Californios on January 13, 1847, securing American control in California.
Following the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo that ended the war, the region was divided between Mexico and the United States; the western territory of Alta California, was to become the U.S. state of California, and the Arizona, Nevada, Colorado and Utah Territories, while the lower region of California, Baja California, remained in the possession of Mexico.
In 1848, the non-native population of California has been estimated to be no more than 15,000. But after gold was discovered, the population burgeoned with U.S. citizens, Europeans, and other immigrants during the great California Gold Rush. On September 9, 1850, as part of the Compromise of 1850, California was admitted to the United States as a free state (one in which slavery was prohibited).
The seat of government for California under Mexican rule was located at Monterey from 1777 until 1835, when Mexican authorities abandoned California, leaving their missions and military forts behind. In 1849, the Constitutional Convention was first held there. Among the duties was the task of determining the location for the new State capital. The first legislative sessions were held in San Jose (1850-1851). Subsequent locations included Vallejo (1852-1853), and nearby Benicia (1853-1854), although these locations eventually proved to be inadequate as well. The capital has been located in Sacramento since 1854.
At first, travel between California and the central and eastern parts of the United States was time-consuming and dangerous. A more direct connection came in 1869 with the completion of the First Transcontinental Railroad through Donner Pass in the Sierra Nevada mountains. After this rail link was established, hundreds of thousands of U.S. citizens came west, where new Californians were discovering that land in the state, if irrigated during the dry summer months, was extremely well-suited to fruit cultivation and agriculture in general. Vast expanses of wheat and other cereal crops, vegetable crops, cotton, and nut and fruit trees were grown (including oranges in Southern California), and the foundation was laid for the state's prodigious agricultural production in the Central Valley and elsewhere.
During the early 20th century, migration to California accelerated with the completion of major transcontinental highways like the Lincoln Highway and Route 66. In the period from 1900 to 1965, the population grew from fewer than one million to become the most populous state in the Union. From 1965 to the present, the population changed radically and became one of the most diverse in the world. The state is regarded as a world center of technology and engineering businesses, the entertainment and music industries, and of U.S. agricultural production.

Energy

Resources and consumption

California’s crude oil and natural gas deposits are located in six geological basins in the Central Valley and along the coast. California has more than one dozen of the United State’s largest oil fields, including the Belridge South oil field, the second largest oil field in the contiguous United States. California’s hydroelectric power potential ranks second in the United States (behind Washington State), and substantial geothermal and wind power resources are found along the coastal mountain ranges and the eastern border with Nevada. High solar power potential is found in southeastern California’s deserts.
California is the most populous State in the Nation but its total energy demand is second to the state of Texas. Although California is a leader in some energy-intensive industries, the state has one of the lowest per capita energy consumption rates in the country. This is in spite of the fact that more motor vehicles are registered in California than any other state, and worker commute times are among the longest in the country.

Petroleum

California’s crude oil output accounts for more than one-tenth of total U.S. production. Drilling operations are concentrated primarily in Kern County and the Los Angeles basin. Although there is also substantial offshore oil and gas production, there is a permanent moratorium on new offshore oil and gas leasing in California waters and a deferral of leasing in Federal waters.
California ranks third in the United States in petroleum refining capacity and accounts for more than one-tenth of total U.S. capacity. In addition to oil from California, California’s refineries process crude oil from Alaska and foreign suppliers. The refineries are configured to produce cleaner fuels, including reformulated motor gasoline and low-sulfur diesel, to meet strict Federal and State environmental regulations.
Most California motorists are required to use a special motor gasoline blend called California Clean Burning Gasoline (CA CBG). By 2004, California completed a transition from methyl tertiary butyl-ether (MTBE) to ethanol as a gasoline oxygenate additive, making California the largest ethanol fuel market in the United States. There are four ethanol production plants in central and southern California, but most of California’s ethanol supply is transported from other states or abroad.

Natural gas

California natural gas production typically is less than 2 percent of total annual U.S. production and satisfies less than one-fifth of state demand. California receives most of its natural gas by pipeline from production regions in the Rocky Mountains, the Southwest, and western Canada.

Electricity

Natural gas-fired power plants typically account for more than one-half of State electricity generation. California is one of the largest hydroelectric power producers in the United States, and with adequate rainfall, hydroelectric power typically accounts for close to one-fifth of State electricity generation. Due to strict emission laws, only a few small coal-fired power plants operate in California.
The Mojave Desert is one of the best sites in the United States for solar power plants. Solar insolation is very high and significant population centers are located in the area. Two prototype systems known as "Solar One" and "Solar Two" produce 10 MW each.
California’s two nuclear power plants account for almost one-fifth of total generation, these are:

Diablo Canyon Power Plant: 2 reactors. Operated and owned by Pacific Gas & Electric Co.

San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station : 2 reactors . Operated by Southern California Edison with various owners ( SCE; San Diego Gas and Electric; City of Anaheim and the City of Riverside).

California leads the United States in electricity generation from nonhydroelectric renewable energy sources, such as wind, geothermal, solar energy, fuel wood, and municipal solid waste/landfill gas resources. A facility known as “The Geysers,” located in the Mayacamas Mountains north of San Francisco, is the largest group of geothermal power plants in the world, with more than 750 megawatts of installed capacity.
Due to high electricity demand, California imports more electricity than any other state, primarily hydroelectric power from states in the Pacific Northwest (via Path 15 and Path 66) and coal- and natural gas-fired production from the desert Southwest via Path 46.

State politics and government

California is governed as a republic, with three branches of government: the executive branch consisting of the Governor of California and the other independently elected constitutional officers; the legislative branch consisting of the Assembly and Senate; and the judicial branch consisting of the Supreme Court of California and lower courts. The state also allows direct participation of the electorate by initiative, referendum, recall, and ratification. California follows a closed primary system. The state's capital is Sacramento.
The Governor of California and the other state constitutional officers serve four-year terms and may be re-elected only once. The California State Legislature consists of a 40 member Senate and 80 member Assembly. Senators serve four year terms and Assembly members two. Members of the Assembly are subject to term limits of three terms, and members of the Senate are subject to term limits of two terms.
For the 2007–2008 session, there are 48 Democrats and 32 Republicans in the Assembly. In the Senate, there are 25 Democrats and 15 Republicans. The current governor is Republican Arnold Schwarzenegger, who was re-elected to a term that lasts through January 2011.
California's judiciary is the largest in the United States (with a total of 1,600 judges, while the federal system has only about 840). It is supervised by the seven Justices of the Supreme Court of California. Justices of the Supreme Court and Courts of Appeal are appointed by the Governor, but are subject to retention by the electorate every 12 years.

Political culture

California has an idiosyncratic political culture. It was the second state to legalize abortion and one of the first states to legalize domestic partnerships for gay couples, and was also the first where voters decided that only marriage between a man and a woman would be recognized (legalized domestic partnerships were not approved by voters, but were made law by the state legislature). California was also the first state in which voters passed a law ending affirmative action (Proposition 209 in 1996).
Democratic strength is centered in coastal regions, of Los Angeles County and San Francisco Bay Area. Democrats also hold a slight majority in Sacramento. The Republican strength is greatest in the San Joaquin Valley, which includes the rapidly-growing cities of Stockton, and Modesto, Orange County remains strongly Republican.
Since 1990, California has generally elected Democratic candidates. However, the state has had little hesitance in electing Republican Governors, though many of its Republican Governors, such as the current Governor Schwarzenegger, tend to be considered "moderate Republicans" and tend to be more liberal than the party itself. Three of the past four Governors of the state were Republican.
Overall, the trend in California politics has been towards the Democratic Party and away from the Republican Party. This trend is most obvious in presidential elections. From 1952-1988 the Republicans lost California only once in a presidential election, when Lyndon B. Johnson won a massive landslide over Republican Barry Goldwater in 1964. Since 1990, the state has gradually moved back to it's Democratic roots. Additionally, the Democrats have easily won every U.S. Senate race since 1994 and have maintained consistent majorities in both houses of the state legislature. In the U.S. House, the Democrats hold a 34-19 edge for the 110th Congress. The two U.S senators are Dianne Feinstein (D), a native of San Francisco and Barbara Boxer (D). The only area in which the Republicans can really compete, is in the governorship, which is currently held by Arnold Schwarzenegger, a "moderate Republican".

California state law

California's legal system is explicitly based on English common law (as is the case with all other states except Louisiana) but carries a few features from Spanish civil law, such as community property. Capital punishment is a legal form of punishment and the state has the largest "Death Row" population in the country (though Texas is far more active in carrying out executions). California's "Death Row" is currently located in San Quentin State Prison situated north of San Francisco in Marin County. Currently Capital punishment is on hold in the courts in California.

Cities, towns and counties

For lists of cities, towns, and counties in California, see List of cities in California (by population), List of cities in California, List of urbanized areas in California (by population), List of counties in California, and California locations by per capita income.

The state of California has 478 incorporated cities and towns, of which 456 are cities and 22 are towns. Under California law, the terms "city" and "town" are explicitly interchangeable; the name of an incorporated municipality in the state can either be "City of (Name)" or "Town of (Name)."
The majority of these cities and towns are within one of five metropolitan areas. Sixty-eight percent of California's population lives in its three largest metropolitan areas, Greater Los Angeles, the San Francisco Bay Area and the Riverside-San Bernardino Area, known as the Inland Empire. Although smaller, the other two large population centers are the San Diego and the Sacramento metro areas. California is home to the largest county in the contiguous United States by area, San Bernardino County.
The state recognizes two kinds of cities--charter and general law. General law cities owe their existence to state law and consequentially governed by it; charter cities are governed by their own city charters. Cities incorporated in the 19th century tend to be charter cities. All of the state's ten most populous cities are charter cities.

Education

California offers a unique three-tier system of public postsecondary education:

The preeminent research university system in the state is the University of California (UC) which employs more Nobel Prize laureates than any other institution in the world, and is considered one of the world's finest public university systems. There are ten general UC campuses, and a number of specialized campuses in the UC system.

The California State University (CSU) system has over 400,000 students, making it the largest university system in the United States. It is intended to accept the top one-third (1/3) of high school students. The CSU schools are primarily intended for undergraduate education.

The California Community Colleges system provides lower division courses. It is composed of 109 colleges, serving a student population of over 2.9 million.

California is also home to such notable private universities and colleges as Stanford University, the University of Southern California (USC), the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), Occidental College, and the Claremont Colleges. California has hundreds of other private colleges and universities, including many religious and special-purpose institutions.
Public secondary education consists of high schools that teach elective courses in trades, languages, and liberal arts with tracks for gifted, college-bound and industrial arts students. California's public educational system is supported by a unique constitutional amendment that requires 40% of state revenues to be spent on education.

Sports

California hosted the 1960 Winter Olympics at Squaw Valley Ski Resort, the 1932 and 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, as well as the 1994 FIFA World Cup.
California has nineteen major professional sports league franchises, far more than any other state. The San Francisco Bay Area has seven major league teams spread in three cities, San Francisco, Oakland and San Jose. While the Greater Los Angeles Area is home to ten major league franchises, it is also the largest metropolitan area not to have a team from the National Football League. San Diego has two major league teams, and Sacramento also has two.
Home to some of most prominent universities in the United States, California has long had many respected collegiate sports programs. In particular, the athletic programs of UC Berkeley, USC, UCLA, Stanford and Fresno State are often nationally ranked in the various collegiate sports. California is also home to the oldest college bowl game, the annual Rose Bowl, and the Holiday Bowl, among others.
Below is a list of major sports teams in California:

External links

Government

State of California Official Web site

2007 California Vehicle Code

Tourism & recreation

visitcalifornia.com California's Official Vacation Guide

visitcalifornia.jp California Travel & Tourism Commission Japan Office

Other

U.S. Census Bureau

Native Tribes, Groups, Language Families and Dialects of California

Counting California

California Historical Society cultural sites index

Economic Research Service, USDA - California State

List of official California State Symbols from the California State Library

USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of California

Map of California watersheds

California Crime Rates 1960 - 2006

California Law Enforcement Agency Uniform Crime Reports 1980 to 2005

The Bear Flag Museum

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

New York is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States, and is the country's third most populous state. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, and shares a water border with Rhode Island as well as an international border with the Canadian provinces of Quebec and Ontario.
New York City, which is both the largest city in the state and in the entire United States, is known for its history as a gateway for immigration to the United States and its status as a financial, cultural, transportation, and manufacturing center.
New York was inhabited by the Algonquian, Iroquois, and Lenape Native American groups at the time Dutch and French nationals moved into the region in the very early 17th century. First claimed by Henry Hudson in 1609, the region came to have Dutch forts in Fort Orange, near the site of the present-day capital of Albany in 1614 and was colonized by the Dutch in 1624, at both Albany and Manhattan; it later fell to British annexation in 1664. About one third of all of the battles of the Revolutionary War took place in New York. New York became an independent state on July 9, 1776 and enacted its constitution in 1777. The state ratified the United States Constitution on July 26, 1788 to become the 11th state. According to the US Department of Commerce, it is also the state of choice for foreign visitors, leading both Florida and California in tourism respectively.

Geography

New York covers 54,475 square miles (141,089 km²) and ranks as 27th largest state by size. The Great Appalachian Valley dominates eastern New York, while Lake Champlain is the chief northern feature of the valley, which also includes the Hudson River flowing southward to the Atlantic Ocean. The rugged Adirondack Mountains, with vast tracts of wilderness, lie west of the valley. Most of the southern part of the state is on the Allegheny plateau, which rises from the southeast to the Catskill Mountains. The western section of the state is drained by the Allegheny River and rivers of the Susquehanna and Delaware systems. The Delaware River Basin Compact, signed in 1961 by New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and the federal government, regulates the utilization of water of the Delaware system.
New York's borders touch (clockwise from the west) two Great Lakes (Erie and Ontario, which are connected by the Niagara River); the provinces of Ontario and Quebec in Canada; Lake Champlain; three New England states (Vermont, Massachusetts, and Connecticut); the Atlantic Ocean, and two Mid-Atlantic states (New Jersey and Pennsylvania). In addition, Rhode Island shares a water border with New York.
Contrasting with New York City's urban atmosphere, the vast majority of the state is dominated by farms, forests, rivers, mountains, and lakes. New York's Adirondack Park is the largest state park in the United States. Niagara Falls, on the Niagara River as it flows from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, is a popular attraction. The Hudson River begins with Lake Tear of the Clouds and flows south through the eastern part of the state without draining Lakes George or Champlain. Lake George empties at its north end into Lake Champlain, whose northern end extends into Canada, where it drains into the Richelieu and then the St Lawrence Rivers. Four of New York City's five boroughs are on the three islands at the mouth of the Hudson River: Manhattan Island, Staten Island, and Brooklyn and Queens on Long Island.
"Upstate" is a common term for New York State counties north of suburban Westchester and Rockland counties. Upstate New York typically includes the Catskill and Adirondack Mountains, the Shawangunk Ridge, the Finger Lakes and the Great Lakes in the west; and Lake Champlain, Lake George, and Oneida Lake in the northeast; and rivers such as the Delaware, Genesee, Mohawk, and Susquehanna. The highest elevation in New York is Mount Marcy in the Adirondacks.

Climate

The climate of New York State is broadly representative of the humid continental type that prevails in the northeastern United States, but its diversity is not usually encountered within an area of comparable size. The Great Lakes, ocean, rivers, and mountains give New York interesting weather. Masses of cold, dry air frequently arrive from the northern interior of the continent. Prevailing winds from the south and southwest transport warm, humid air, which has been conditioned by the Gulf of Mexico and adjacent subtropical waters. These two air masses provide the dominant continental characteristics of the climate. A third great air mass flows inland from the North Atlantic Ocean and produces cool, cloudy, and damp weather conditions.
Nearly all storm and frontal systems moving eastward across the continent pass through or come close in proximity to New York State. Storm systems often move northward along the Atlantic coast and have an important influence on the weather and climate of Long Island and the lower Hudson Valley. Frequently, areas deep in the interior of the state feel the effects of such coastal storms.
The winters are long and cold in the Plateau Divisions of the state. In the majority of winter seasons, a temperature of or lower can be expected in the northern highlands (Northern Plateau) and or colder in the southwestern and east-central highlands (Southern Plateau). The Adirondack region records from 35 to 45 days with below zero temperatures in normal to severe winters. Much of Upstate New York, particularly Western and Central New York, are typically affected by lake-effect snows. This usually results in high yearly snowfall totals in these regions. Winters are also long and cold in both Western and Central New York, though not as cold as the Adirondack region. The New York City metro area in comparison to the rest of the state is milder in the winter. Thanks in part to geography (its proximity to the Atlantic and being shielded to the north and west by hillier terrain), the New York metro area usually sees far less snow than the rest of the state. Lake-effect snow rarely affects the New York metro area, except for its extreme northwestern suburbs. Winters also tend to be noticeably shorter here than the rest of the state.
The summer climate is cool in the Adirondacks, Catskills, and higher elevations of the Southern Plateau. The New York City area and lower portions of the Hudson Valley have rather warm summers by comparison, with some periods of high, uncomfortable humidity. The remainder of New York State enjoys pleasantly warm summers, marred by only occasional, brief intervals of sultry conditions. Summer daytime temperatures usually range from the upper 70s to mid 80s °F (25 to 30 °C) over much of the State, producing an atmospheric environment favorable to many athletic, recreational, and other outdoor activities.
New York ranks 46th among the 50 states in the amount of greenhouse gases generated per person. This efficiency is primarily due to the state's relatively higher rate of mass transit use.

State parks

New York has many state parks and two major forest preserves. Adirondack Park, roughly the size of the state of Vermont and the largest state park in the United States, was established in 1892 and given state constitutional protection in 1894. The thinking that led to the creation of the Park first appeared in George Perkins Marsh's Man and Nature, published in 1864. Marsh argued that deforestation could lead to desertification; referring to the clearing of once-lush lands surrounding the Mediterranean, he asserted "the operation of causes set in action by man has brought the face of the earth to a desolation almost as complete as that of the moon."
The Catskill Park was protected in legislation passed in 1885, which declared that its land was to be conserved and never put up for sale or lease. Consisting of 700,000 acres (2,800 km²) of land, the park is a habitat for bobcats, minks and fishers. There are some 400 black bears living in the region. The state operates numerous campgrounds and there are over 300 miles (480 km) of multi-use trails in the Park.
The Montauk Point State Park boasts the famous Montauk Lighthouse commissioned by the first President of the U.S.A, George Washington, which is a major tourist attraction and is located in the township of East Hampton, Suffolk County. Hither Hills park offers camping and is a popular destination with surfcasting sport fishermen.

History

During the 17th century, Dutch trading posts established for the purchase of pelts from the Iroquois and other tribes expanded into the colony of New Netherlands. The first of these trading posts were Beverwyck (1614, now Albany); New Amsterdam, (1623, now NYC); and Esopus, (1653, now Kingston). The British captured the colony during the Second Anglo-Dutch War and governed it as the Province of New York. Agitation for independence during the 1770s brought the American Revolution, which for New York was also a civil war.
New York declared itself an independent state on July 9, 1776. The New York state constitution was framed by a convention which assembled at White Plains, New York on July 10 1776, and after repeated adjournments and changes of location, terminated its labors at Kingston, New York on Sunday evening, April 20 1777, when the new constitution was adopted with but one dissenting vote. It was not submitted to the people for ratification. It was drafted by John Jay. On 30 July 1777, George Clinton was inaugurated as the first Governor of New York at Kingston.
During the revolution, four of the Iroquois nations fought on the side of the British. They were defeated in the Sullivan Expedition of 1779. Suffering privations, many members moved to Canada. Most, absent or present, lost their land after the war. Some of the land purchases are the subject of modern-day claims by the individual tribes.
New York state was one of the original thirteen colonies that became the United States. It was the 11th state to ratify the United States Constitution, on July 26 1788.
Transportation in western New York was difficult before canals were built in the early part of the nineteenth century. The Hudson and Mohawk Rivers could be navigated only as far as Central New York. While the St. Lawrence River could be navigated to Lake Ontario, the way westward to the other Great Lakes was blocked by Niagara Falls, and so the only route to western New York was over land. Governor DeWitt Clinton strongly advocated building a canal to connect the Hudson River with Lake Erie, and thus all the Great Lakes. Work commenced in 1817, and the Erie Canal was finished in 1825. The canal opened up vast areas of New York to commerce and settlement, and enabled port cities such as Buffalo to grow and prosper.

Politics and government

Under its present constitution (adopted in 1938), New York is governed by three branches of government: the executive branch, consisting of the Governor of New York and the other independently elected constitutional officers; the legislative branch, consisting of the bicameral New York State Legislature; and the judicial branch, consisting of the state's highest court, the New York Court of Appeals, and lower courts. The state has two U.S. senators, 29 members in the United States House of Representatives, and 31 electoral votes in national presidential elections (a drop from its 41 votes during the 1970s).
New York's capital is Albany. The state's subordinate political units are its 62 counties. Other officially incorporated governmental units are towns, cities, and villages. New York has more than 4,200 local governments that take one of these forms. About 52% of all revenue raised by local governments in the state is raised solely by the government of New York City, which is the largest municipal government in the United States.
The state has a strong imbalance of payments with the federal government. New York State receives 82 cents in services for every $1 it sends in taxes to the federal government in Washington. The state ranks near the bottom, in 42nd place, in federal spending per tax dollar.
Many of New York's public services are carried out by public benefit corporations, frequently called authorities or development corporations. Well known public benefit corporations in New York include the Metropolitan Transportation Authority, which oversees New York City's public transportation system, and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, a bi-state transportation infrastructure agency.
New York's legal system is explicitly based on English common Law. Capital punishment was declared unconstitutional in 2004.

Politics

In the last few decades, New York State has generally supported candidates belonging to the Democratic Party in national elections. Democratic presidential candidate John Kerry won New York State by 18 percentage points in 2004, while Democrat Al Gore won the state by an even larger margin in 2000. New York City is a major Democratic stronghold with liberal politics. Many of the state's other urban areas, such as Albany, Buffalo, Rochester, and Syracuse are also Democratic. Rural upstate New York, however, is generally more conservative than the cities and tends to favor Republicans. Heavily populated Suburban areas such as Westchester County and Long Island have swung between the major parites over the past 25 years, but more often supports Democrats.
New York City is the most important source of political fund-raising in the United States for both major parties. Four of the top five zip codes in the nation for political contributions are in Manhattan. The top zip code, 10021 on the Upper East Side, generated the most money for the 2000 presidential campaigns of both George W. Bush and Al Gore. Republican Presidential candidates will often skip campaigning in the state, taking it as a loss and focusing on vital swing states.

Education

The University of the State of New York oversees all public primary, middle-level, and secondary education in the state, while the New York City Department of Education manages the public school system in New York City.
At the college level, the statewide public university system is the State University of New York (SUNY). The City University of New York (CUNY) is the public university system of New York City. SUNY schools SUNY Geneseo and Binghamton University are consistently ranked in the top two best values in education in the nation, according to Kipliger's. Binghamton University was ranked as the, "Premier Public University in the Northeast," according to the Fisk Guide to Colleges. The SUNY system consists of 64 community colleges, technical colleges, undergraduate colleges and universities. The four university centers are University at Albany, Binghamton University, University at Buffalo and SUNY Stony Brook.
In addition there are several private universities, including the oldest Catholic institution in the northeast, Fordham University. New York is home to both Columbia University and Cornell University, making it the only state to contain more than one Ivy League school.
In total, New York State is home to 307 degree granting institutions making it the second in number behind California. Among the most notable and highest ranked institutions are:

Binghamton University

Clarkson University

Colgate University

Columbia University

Cornell University

Fordham University

SUNY Geneseo

Hamilton College

Ithaca College

Marist College

New York University (NYU)

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI)

University of Rochester

Rochester Institute of Technology (RIT)

Syracuse University

Vassar College

Polytechnic University

Sports

New York hosted the 1980 Winter Olympics at Lake Placid, the Games known for the USA-USSR hockey game dubbed the "Miracle on Ice" in which a group of American college students and amateurs defeated the heavily-favored Soviet national ice hockey team 4-3 and went on to win the gold medal. Lake Placid also hosted the 1932 Winter Olympics. Along with St. Moritz, Switzerland and Innsbruck, Austria, it is one of the three places to have twice hosted the Winter Olympic Games.
New York is represented in the National Football League by the Buffalo Bills; Despite their names, the New York Giants and New York Jets, which had both been based in New York City, play in Giants Stadium, which is located in East Rutherford, New Jersey. New York also has two Major League Baseball teams, the New York Yankees (based in The Bronx), and the New York Mets (based in Queens). Three National Hockey League franchises (the New York Rangers, the New York Islanders and the Buffalo Sabres) are based in New York. A National Basketball Association team, the New York Knicks is based in Manhattan, while the New Jersey Nets are scheduled to move into Brooklyn in the near future.

Navy vessel namesakes

There have been at least six United States Navy ships named USS New York in honor of the state. The keel was laid for the USS New York (LPD 21) on September 10, 2004 and she will be the seventh US Navy ship to be named for the state. The New York's motto will be "Never Forget."
The USS New York is one of several ships in the San Antonio-class of amphibious transport dock ships (LPD stands for Landing Ship Transport, Dock). The ship will be used to transport and land Marines, their equipment and supplies, such as amphibious vehicles and helicopters. It is one of three similar ships that are being built and being given names that are associated with September 11. The others are the LPD 24 USS Arlington (named because of the location of the Pentagon) and the LPD 25 USS Somerset (named after the county in Pennsylvania where United Airlines Flight 93 crashed).
Twenty-four tons of steel from the World Trade Center have been recycled for construction of the ship. Approximately seven tons were used to make the bow section of the ship's hull. The steel from the World Trade Center has been treated with reverence by the ship builders. Several workers have postponed their retirements for the honor of constructing the USS New York.
According to Naval records, several other ships have carried the name the USS New York. This new ship was given the name the USS New York when former New York governor George Pataki wrote to Secretary of the Navy Gordon England and requested that the Navy use the name to honor the victims of September 11 and to give it to a surface ship that would be used to fight the War on Terror. This is an exception to the current use of state names for submarines only.
The first ship to carry the name USS New York was an armed gondola built by Revolutionary War General Benedict Arnold in 1776. She was burned to avoid capture later in the Revolutionary War.
The second ship named USS New York was a 36-gun frigate built in New York and commissioned in 1800. She saw service in the Mediterranean in the war against the Barbary Pirates. She was burned by the British in 1814 while she was in the Washington Navy Yard.
The third USS New York was one of nine built to discourage a future war with Britain after the war of 1812. The threat abated, so she was never launched. Union forces later burned the 74-gun ship of the line to avoid her capture at the start of the American Civil War.
Beginning in 1863, a screw sloop that was being built that would have carried the name USS New York, but it also never got launched, being sold in 1888.
The fifth USS New York (ACR 2) was a armored cruiser commissioned in 1893. She was used in the Spanish-American War and was the flagship of Rear Admiral William T. Sampson in the Battle of Santiago de Cuba (July 3, 1898), which destroyed the Spanish fleet. She was later renamed the USS Saratoga in 1911 and then renamed again as the USS Rochester in 1917.
The sixth was the battleship USS New York (BB 34), commissioned in 1914. She saw service in both World War I and World War II. She participated in atomic testing off the Bikini Islands surviving both an atmospheric explosion and an underwater detonation. She was used as a target ship in 1948 and was sunk off Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.
Finally, there was a Los Angeles-class nuclear attack submarine USS New York City (SSN 696) in service from 1979 until 1997 when she was decommissioned.

External links

New York State Office of Parks Recreation and Historic Preservation

State of New York Website

New York Governor Website

NYProfiles.com - Profiles of New Yorkers

I Love New York - official New York State tourism website

Population of each county

USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of New York

US Census Bureau

New York State Facts

NewYoogle.com - Google customised by New York experts

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

New York City, arguably the world's most vibrant and sprawling metropolis, occupies five boroughs, each with its own distinct identity. After all, before the historic 1898 consolidation, Manhattan, Brooklyn, the Bronx, Queens and Staten Island were each independent municipalities.

Manhattan Manhattan, home to the most recognizable sites, dominates popular perception of New York City. Its most famous districts are listed below:

Wall Street and the Financial District New York's first district remains its most historic. Wall Street investment banks coexist with landmarks like Trinity Church . Battery Park draws people for its panoramic views. The World Trade Center was also one of the area's most popular destinations, until its tragic destruction on Sept. 11, 2001; no longer will people be able to view the city from its observation deck, and it may be years before this area of Manhattan returns to normal.

Harlem Long the national epicenter of African-American culture, Harlem was home to the Harlem Renaissance, arguably this country's most influential artistic, literary and cultural movement. It has since seen some of New York's worst poverty and crime. But now, Harlem is benefiting from a booming economy, as rents rise and tourists clamor to visit its jazz clubs and Southern restaurants.

Greenwich Village At the turn of the 19th century, Greenwich Village drew free spirits from around the nation, including poet Edna St. Vincent Millay and playwright Eugene O'Neill. As the years went on, rents inevitably rose. Now, its townhouses are some of the most expensive in the city. New York University students gather here in the Washington Square Park . A diverse array of shops, bars and music clubs exist along Bleecker Street.

East Village Artists, students and yuppies have gone a long way towards gentrifying the long poor and multi-ethnic neighborhood. Today, the artistic spirit that initially brought about change remains evident. Urban gardens and art exhibits sit beside cafes, craft shops and vegetarian restaurants.

Soho & Tribeca Once home to massive factories, artists moved in and transformed the area into a bustling urban mecca. Galleries, designer shops, sophisticated restaurants and trendy bars followed soon after. Today, tourists flock here and rents have risen sky high.

Lower East Side It is hard to believe that this area once housed some of the city's worst slums. Today, rents are rising and yuppies have arrived. The historic Orchard Street Shopping District is home to several hip bars and nightclubs.

Chinatown Asian restaurants, grocery stores and trinket shops line the ever-crowded streets. One need not travel to Hong Kong for a $10 Rolex watch, as plenty are available here. Dim Sum and other favorites attract diners on practically every corner.

Little Italy Frank Sinatra, Italian restaurants and kitsch draw tourists to this lively neighborhood surrounding Mulberry Street. The Feast of San Gennaro still welcomes its throngs, but the neighborhood is fast being surrounded by nearby Chinatown.

Gramercy and Flatiron The majestic Flatiron Building lords over this beautiful, eclectic district marked by loft spaces to the west and pre-war residences to the east. More than a century after their construction, the apartment buildings and townhouses around Gramercy Park remain coveted addresses.

Chelsea Once a working class community, Chelsea has become a posh address. As rents in Greenwich Village rose, the vibrant gay community moved upwards to occupy Chelsea's many brownstones and loft spaces. Others followed, and today it reflects New York's ethnic and cultural diversity.

Meat Packing District Chelsea's energy was bound to spill downward into this former industrial wasteland. Now, some of the city's hottest destinations occupy spaces, once reserved for slaughtered meat.

Midtown As the name implies, Midtown is smack in the middle of everything. Nobody is really sure where Midtown begins (most would say somewhere at the 30s), but most agree it stops around Central Park . Publishing houses, financial firms, import/export companies and fashion houses all do business here. Trump Tower entices shoppers, along with all those glorious stores along Fifth Avenue. Ice skaters twirl at Rockefeller Center and the spectacular St. Patrick's Cathedral offers serenity and spirituality.

Times Square & Hell's Kitchen Many New Yorkers miss the almost-gone seediness of Times Square, as the World of Disney has replaced sex shops and strip clubs. However, most people begrudgingly admit that it is better this way. Visitors adore everything from souvenir shops to enormous billboards and Broadway musicals. A few blocks west lies Hell's Kitchen, a community filled with eclectic restaurants, bars and shops.

Upper East Side Park, Fifth and Madison have always been posh avenues. Whether in the gilded mansions of yesterday or the area's hi-rise modern apartments, old money and high society have long made their home here. Consequently, shops to serve them line Madison Avenue. Baby Gap coexists with art galleries and antique shops. Further east, new money has overtaken the old Yorkville slum.

Upper West Side When the co-ops of the East Side were freer to restrict residents, the Upper West Side became home to new money. Then, as "modernist" Eastsiders tore down their pre-war palaces, Upper West Side residents kept their old buildings and renters now value the neighborhood's attractive real estate. Meanwhile, bars and restaurants catering to Long Island and New Jersey folk (a. k. a. the Bridge and Tunnels crowd) continue to sprout like weeds along Columbus and Amsterdam avenues.

Brooklyn This massive borough stretches from festive Coney Island to elegant Brooklyn Heights. But wherever Brooklynites hail from, they remain a largely proud lot. They can boast of the Brooklyn Botanic Garden , the gorgeous bridge that bears the borough's name, the Brooklyn Museum of Art, and a growing restaurant scene. Some are even proud of their accent.

Queens From Flushing to Astoria, Queens is experiencing a quiet renaissance, as refugees from Manhattan's high rents continue to discover what this working-class borough offers its residents. Inexpensive ethnic restaurants pepper the borough. Queens is also home to the Kaufman Astoria Studio and the American Museum of the Moving Image.

The Bronx This borough boasts the Yankees, one of the nation's finest zoos, and an extraordinary Botanical Garden . Alas, poverty continues to exist, but areas including the South Bronx have benefited from economic booms.

Staten Island More like a middle and working class suburb than a borough of the city, Staten Island houses thousands of residents who ride the ferry to work in Manhattan each business day.

Gambling capital, vacation paradise or premier business destination; these are all definitions of the city that never sleeps. Reality takes a hike when you enter the world of glittering casinos with their 24-hour gambling excitement. The scarcity of clocks adds to the fantasy of those taking time off from the real world. As a family vacation destination, the city offers the ultimate in entertainment for all ages. As a business destination, Las Vegas wins hands down with the volume of facilities and services available for either large conventions or small business get-togethers. Multitudes of upscale eateries are at your fingertips for a business lunch or dinner and after-hours entertainment is plentiful and diverse. Whether you are planning to move here, attend a business meeting, skydive, get married or just relax and enjoy, you will find Las Vegas to be a city like no other in the world.

The Strip: Las Vegas Boulevard The fabled three-mile area holds more hotel rooms than any other city in the world. You will find the most famous and remarkable resorts such as Bellagio with its Italian Renaissance aura and Caesars Palace , the glory of Rome, Vegas-style. Old standbys include the Flamingo Hilton and the Mirage , with its white tigers and erupting volcanoes. See the Paris Las Vegas with outstanding replicas of the Eiffel Tower, Arc de Triomphe and magnifique Parisian atmosphere and charm. Treasure Island offers daily live pirate battles, free of charge. At the "bottom" or south end of the strip, risen from the ashes of the Hacienda Hotel, now stands the magnificent Mandalay Bay with its tropical atmosphere and a pool with waves you can actually surf. At the top of the Strip, you will find the Stratosphere Tower visible from miles away. It is the highest free-standing building in the western half of the United States, with views from the top that are indescribable.

Downtown: Fremont Street The original Las Vegas, where people hung out in the '30s and early '40s, is still thriving, but with a new face known as the Fremont Street Experience . Some tourists actually prefer this area to the Strip because room prices are generally lower, it's an easy walk from one casino to the next and it's reminiscent of the early, nostalgic days of Las Vegas. In addition, there are famous hotels such as The Plaza (formerly known as Union Plaza), overlooking Fremont Street, and the classic Golden Nugget . For nostalgia buffs, there is also the Golden Gate Hotel Casino , renovated to its earlier classic glory and appearance and still famous for the 99-cent shrimp cocktail.

Off-Strip In recent years, hotels have sprouted up near the Strip, which are conveniently accessible by shuttle bus, taxi or car. Some of the better known of these are The Orleans , the Rio Suites and the Gold Coast on Flamingo. Further north on Sahara, is the Palace Station , the granddaddy of the Station Casinos with its original approach to fine buffet dining known as The Feast . To the east, there's the Las Vegas Hilton with the sprawling Convention Center. Further south, between Flamingo and Tropicana, east of the Strip, you will find the "must see" Hard Rock Hotel and Casino next to the original Hard Rock Cafe , each with its own fantastic giant neon guitar at the entrance.

Boulder Strip This has become something of a phenomenon in itself. The Boulder Highway was once a sprawl of small motels and businesses, leading from Fremont Street eventually out to the city of Henderson and beyond that to Boulder City and Boulder Dam, also known as Hoover Dam. But in recent years it's become the "Second Strip" with its proliferation of large, popular hotels and casinos including the Boulder Station Hotel and Casino , one of the first properties to offer child-care at a nominal fee for children of both guests and non-guests, and Sam's Town Hotel and Casino , which has become the high standard of western-theme resorts with its Mystic Falls Indoor Park .

North Las Vegas The city of North Las Vegas has the Las Vegas Motor Speedway , a major tourist attraction in itself, as well as Nellis Air Force Base, one of the strongest military bases in the United States and home to the flying Thunderbirds. As far as accommodations are concerned, there are several popular spots including The Fiesta and Texas Station Hotel and Casino . There is also the Santa Fe in northwest Las Vegas, which is unique for its Olympic-style Santa Fe Ice Arena .

Summerlin Located in the far northwest section of the Las Vegas valley, Summerlin is a planned community with homes, shops, recreational activities, festivals and concerts. A wonderful accommodation in this area is the Suncoast Hotel and Casino .

Beyond Las Vegas For day trips that are well worth your time, check out nearby Boulder City, Lake Mead and the Hoover Dam to the east and southeast. To the west, there is Red Rock Canyon and beyond that is Spring Mountain Ranch State Park.

San Francisco is quite small, yet its hilly terrain and patchwork demographic profile give it more distinctly defined neighborhoods than a city five times its size. As a result, the sights, sounds and flavors of a community—and even its climate—can change within a single block.

Castro Street and Noe Valley The center of gay San Francisco, and a landmark for gay culture everywhere, the Castro's bars, dance clubs, restaurants, and one-of-a-kind shops abound in the commercial area around 18th and Castro Street. There's arguably more street life in the Castro than anywhere else in the city, especially on weekends. The Sisters of Perpetual Indulgence sometimes make an appearance at special events (they're really men in nun drag), and take it from us—this is the place to be on Halloween. Trek up Castro to Liberty Street to see exceptional Victorian homes. Over the hill lies Noe Valley and its main shopping strip, 24th Street. Cute and relatively quiet, Noe Valley has enough great restaurants and gourmet food shops to make it sophisticated, but not too many chromed-up bars and Italian clothing boutiques to make it stuffy.

Chinatown The greatest single concentration of Chinese people outside of Asia—a population of roughly 80,000—live in the approximately 24 square blocks of Chinatown, making it the most densely populated area of San Francisco. As you walk around, you'll be richly rewarded by the sights, sounds, smells and tastes of this vibrant community. Grant Avenue is the decorative showpiece of Chinatown. Try dim sum for lunch and select your dinner while it's still swimming!

Civic Center and Hayes Valley Stately Beaux Arts buildings like the War Memorial Opera House and the domed, renovated City Hall are situated near the modern Louise M. Davies Symphony Hall and the Public Library's graceful Main Branch. The Asian Art Museum is also in the area, housed in the former Main Library building. Nearby Hayes Valley offers fine dining and apres-symphony toddies for concert-goers, as well as tastefully creative stores for clothing and gifts.

Cow Hollow and Union Street The most gracious, imposing homes of Cow Hollow (so named for its original bovine residents) are nestled against the Presidio where Pacific Heights dives to the Marina. Spectacular views are the norm. Straight, single yuppies pack the Balboa Cafe , Sushi Chardonnay , and other bars and restaurants on Fillmore and Union Streets. Clothes hounds can easily fritter away a day in Union Street's tasteful boutiques.

Downtown and Union Square Union Square is the heart of San Francisco's bustling and stylish downtown shopping district. Posh department stores such as Neiman Marcus and Macy's ring the one-block square park. Hundreds of other exclusive stores, boutiques and shopping centers, such as Westfield San Francisco Shopping Centre lie within a three-block radius of the square. If you've shopped till you've dropped, pick yourself up at an outdoor cafe in tiny Maiden Lane , and restore the soul at one of the many art galleries on Sutter and Geary Streets. This is also the home of San Francisco's modest Theater District.

Financial District and The Embarcadero "The Wall Street of the West:" Bank of America, Charles Schwab, and the Transamerica Corporation (in its landmark, 48-floor Pyramid ) are among the many banks and corporations headquartered here. The Embarcadero Center features dining, shopping, a fine art cinema, and a health club. Justin Herman Plaza is the site of many New Year's Eve bashes. The Embarcadero itself fronts the Bay for miles on either side of the imposing Ferry Building, modeled on the cathedral tower in Seville, Spain.

Fisherman's Wharf, Ghirardelli Square, and Aquatic Park Once the thriving center of San Francisco's fishing industry. Many fishing boats still dock at the Wharf, but Fisherman's Wharf today is more of an extended tourist trap. Pier 39 is fun thanks to the delightful colony of sea lions which annexed its boat marina. Aquatic Park features a beach, of sorts, and a long pier spiraling well out into the Bay. Old sea-dogs will enjoy adjacent Hyde Street Pier, where the tall ship Balclutha and other historic ships are docked, along with the Maritime Museum . Ghirardelli Square , a chocolate-factory-turned-shopping-and-restaurant-complex, features some of the city's better dining and views. Nice for an evening stroll.

Golden Gate Park With 1000 acres of gardens, meadows, lakes, golf, archery, and internationally recognized art and science museums, Golden Gate Park offers endless recreational possibilities for visitors and locals.

The deYoung Museum and the Japanese Tea Garden are some of the main attractions of the famous park, drawing millions of visitors each year. At the western edge of the park, Ocean Beach, although unappealing for swimming, attracts hard-core surfers with its rough, frigid and unpredictable waves.

Lower Haight The area around Haight and Fillmore feels at once more bohemian and less unsavory than the Haight Ashbury to the west. Ethnic restaurants, unpretentious cafes, and independent bookstores are mushrooming in this neighborhood. The youngish street life is lively on nights and weekends.

Nob Hill & Russian Hill On impossibly steep Nob Hill, California's early industrialists built fabulous mansions that looked down upon the rest of San Francisco. While only the imposing Flood Mansion remains—now the Pacific Union Club—the area's five-star hotels bear the names of other Nob Hill denizens: The Mark Hopkins , the Renaissance Stanford Court Hotel , and the Huntington . Facing Huntington Park is Grace Cathedral , a 3/4 replica of Paris' Notre Dame. Adjoining Nob Hill is Russian Hill, where San Francisco's old money has a great view of the Bay. The "Crookedest Street in the World" resides here and snakes down Russian Hill for the 1000 block of Lombard Street . The traffic is generally impossible—walk it!

North Beach and Telegraph Hill Originally settled by Italians, North Beach became a magnet for Beat Generation writers and poets in the 1950s. City Lights Bookstore and the cafes and shops on upper Grant Avenue still exude Beatnik funkiness. A new wave of entrepreneurial Italians has brought a sense of Roman style to exciting new restaurants along Columbus Avenue. On Broadway, barkers still pull tourists and sailors into charmingly seedy strip joints. Clapboard sea captains' cottages and mossy flower gardens seem to dangle in space from the cliffs of Telegraph Hill. Coit Tower , at 210 feet, commands a stunning panorama from the hilltop. The boardwalk Filbert Steps leads from the Tower down through the Grace Marchand Gardens to Levi's Plaza Park at the base of the Hill.

Fillmore Street and Japantown Fillmore Street, Pacific Heights' commercial spur, features noteworthy restaurants, epicurean food, and antique shops, all attended by a lively trade from young professionals. Fillmore and Geary has become a popular nightlife destination, thanks to John Lee Hooker's Boom Boom Room , the Fillmore Auditorium , and the AMC Kabuki 8 Theater multiplex, a favorite for film festivals. Be advised that the neighborhood gets a bit sketchy to the south and west of Geary and Fillmore. The Kabuki 8 Theater and neighboring Kabuki Hot Springs are part of the Japan Center, the commercial heart of Japantown. A sort of miniature Ginza, the Japan Center features a 100-foot pagoda, bonsai gardens, sushi bars and other businesses. Each spring it holds the Northern California Cherry Blossom Festival .

Pacific Heights & Presidio Heights Stately homes and high-rent apartment buildings line the ridge high above Cow Hollow in old-money Pacific Heights. Genteel, renovated Victorians ring the peaceful Alta Plaza Park. Washington Street between Presidio and Arguello features exceptionally palatial residences. Those fortunate enough to live here shop for antiques and dine in quiet refinement on a few understated blocks of nearby Sacramento Street. San Francisco's largest synagogue, Temple Emanu-el , is to be found on Arguello Street.

SOMA Once an unglamorous stretch of warehouses with a seedy undercurrent, an exciting modern San Francisco has emerged in the area South of Market Street—SOMA. Conventions, art, and entertainment possibilities abound in the Moscone/YerbaBuena Center area. Locals can be seen at leisure at the South Park Cafe , Brain Wash (a cafe/performance space/laundromat), or other fashion-forward restaurants and watering holes.

South Beach/China Basin One of the city's most popular residential areas for young professionals, South Beach arose from a virtual wasteland at the southern end of the Embarcadero and the western edge of SoMa. Apartment complexes and boat marinas squeeze together between the foot of the Bay Bridge and SBC Park , the San Francisco Giants' waterfront baseball stadium. Warehouses and factories have either been converted into stylish lofts or are being razed in a swath of development extending down Third Street to the Mission Bay development.

Haight-Ashbury and the Panhandle This small, but densely concentrated cradle of the hippie movement has tried to retain much of its flower-power, peace and love appeal. While real Summer-of-Love generation hippies may be hard to find, young people, dreadlocked, skinheaded, or skateboard-crazy have continued to come to the Haight to break boundaries. The colorful bars and restaurants of upper Haight Street, however, are always packed with professional twenty-somethings. The annual Haight-Ashbury Street Fair is quite a scene. Architecture buffs will want to take a look at the regal Victorians on the Panhandle—the grassy, tree-lined strip extends east from Golden Gate Park along Fell and Oak Streets.

The Marina District Tanned, fit and energetic twenty-somethings run and rollerblade along the Marina Green, a vast expanse of grass fronting the Bay between two yacht harbors. Mountain bikers crowd cafes, restaurants, and brunch hangouts along busy Chestnut Street after Sunday morning rides to Mount Tamalpais. The graceful Palace of Fine Arts houses The Exploratorium , the one-of-a-kind, hands-on science museum—a must-see for those with kids. At the southern end of the Marina Green is Fort Mason Center , a waterside arts and cultural center.

The Mission District The nexus of Hispanic culture, and a mecca for edgy bohemians, the Mission now houses increasing numbers of young professionals and their sport utility vehicles. Mexican and Central American businesses line teeming Mission Street. Visit popular La Taqueria , and be assured that the wait is worth it. Along the Valencia Corridor, one block to the west, bars, cafes, and restaurants of every description lead to the buzzing 16th and Valencia hub. The neighborhood draws its name from nearby Mission Dolores , founded in 1776. The dolled-up, postcard-perfect Victorians on Dolores Street are worth a look—in the daytime—from adjacent Dolores Park.

The Presidio 14,000 acres of forests and beaches, 75 miles of bicycle-friendly roads, a golf course, and scenic grandeur without end make this the jewel of the Golden Gate National Recreation Area. The Presidio was a military base from 1776 to 1994; antebellum Fort Point , under the Golden Gate Bridge , is a favorite for cannon enthusiasts, as well as for surfers, sailboarders, and Hitchcock aficionados (it's the site of Kim Novak's attempted suicide in Vertigo).

The Richmond District Fog-bound and quiet residential streets stretch to the Cliff House and Sutro Baths at the ocean, with the occasional Irish pub along the way. Some of the city's best Chinese restaurants are to be found in "Little Chinatown" on Clement Street, and Cyrillic lettering fills store windows around the imposing, gold-domed Holy Virgin Russian Orthodox Cathedral on outer Geary Boulevard. Exclusive Seacliff, home to Robin Williams and other celebrities, gives onto the Golden Gate next to Lincoln Park, site of the California Palace of the Legion of Honor and a spectacular golf course.

The Sunset A quiet and intensely foggy residential district, the principal attractions to the Outer Sunset are the San Francisco Zoo and the natural amphitheater at Stern Grove , where free concerts are held on summer Sundays. The Inner Sunset features a lively stretch of Irving Street, near 9th Avenue. Students from nearby UCSF Medical School crowd ethnic restaurants of every stripe, from Ethiopian to Thai.

Once just a village that settled on the "Ile de la Cité" (City Island) on the confluence of the Seine's two branches, Paris has vastly expanded over the centuries, taking the surrounding villages under its wing and making them its own. Nowadays the City of Light - a name Paris earned during the age of the Enlightenment - is made up of several arrondissments or districts, numbered from 1 to 20 and logically ordered with the 1st in the centre and the others following on in a clockwise spiral. The differences are vast and varied between the districts, both in terms of the populations and attractions, which together make up the multifaceted city we know and love.

1st: With its impressive collection of paintings and sculptures, the Louvre attracts visitors from the world over, who often combine it with a stroll in the adjoining Tuileries gardens. Designers of haute couture, including Yves St-Laurent and Dior, have set up shop in Faubourg Saint-Honoré , just a short walk from the majestic Place Vendôme , home to some of the finest jewelers in Paris. If luxury seems to be the prevailing feature in the 1st district, it has also lovingly accepted the Forum des Halles , the city's largest shopping centre.

2nd: With its little back streets harbouring galleries, cafés and boutiques, this district sets a typically Parisian scene. West of Rue Richelieu stands the theatre district where a dozen or so playhouses throng. The Palais Brongniart reminds by-passers of what used to be the location of Paris vibrant Stock market, while certain clothing factories in the Sentier district are now home to Internet companies.

3rd: The Marais district prides itself on being one of the oldest and best preserved in Paris. In keeping with this yearning for yesteryear, a museum charting the history of the capital ( Musée Carnavalet ) can also be found here. Scattered with trendy bars, cafés and stylish boutiques, the Marais has also become the Mecca of gay nightlife in Paris.

4th: Undoubtedly one of the most picturesque districts. Wander across the bridge opposite the Hôtel de Ville (town hall) and you will drift onto the capital's two islands - Île de la Cité and Île Saint-Louis where a visit to the stunning Notre-Dame Cathedral is an absolute must. Back on the right bank, Place des Vosges , a beautiful old square lined with ancient buildings, is a wonderful witness to times gone by, while the Beaubourg centre of contemporary art confirms its resolutely futuristic outlook.

5th: This and the adjoining 6th district comprise the Quartier latin (Latin Quarter), bastion of student life and higher education in Paris. Within a 100m radius around the Panthéon you'll find some of the most prestigious schools and universities in all of France. The Jardin des plantes , Paris' botanical gardens and zoo, is at once a calm and exotic place, and the Arènes de Lutèce (remains of a Roman amphitheatre) remind us just how rich the history of Paris really is. You'll find the Museum of the Middle Ages in Cluny Square. As picturesque as you could possibly imagine, the quaysides double as an enthralling treasure trove of second-hand bookstalls. Come nightfall, the young crowds flock to Place de la Contrescarpe and Rue Mouffetard.

6th: Rue de Seine, de Buci, Mazarine and Dauphine, along with the whole area between Boulevard St-Germain and the river Seine itself, are wholeheartedly characteristic of the allure of Paris. Discover the little cafés and boutiques of the chic-intellectual district of Saint Germain des Prés , and the bars and nightspots when the sun goes down. If on the other hand you want to escape, take some peaceful time out in Jardin du Luxembourg .

7th: More commonly known as the "quartier des ministres" (ministers' quarter), the 7th district also boasts some of Paris' most beautiful monuments - the Invalides , the Eiffel Tower , the Champ de Mars - literally meaning "Field of Mars", this was originally a parade ground for cadets in the Ecole Militaire (Military Academy). Between Quai Voltaire and Rue de l'Université, dozens upon dozens of antique dealers entice you into their shops on the Carré Rive Gauche, and if you are in an artistic frame of mind, the spectacular < Musée d'Orsay is well worth a browse.

8th: Naturally, any visit to the 8th district has to start on the most beautiful avenue in the world - the fabulous Champs-Elysées - which extends from Place de l'Etoile down to the finishing post on Place de la Concorde . Also worth seeing is La Madeleine - a neoclassical church - and jogger's paradise, the Parc Monceau . Music lovers will find heaven in a shopping trip along Rue de Rome. Other places of interest include the Grand Palais and the Palais de la Découverte (the Palace of Discovery), which makes the fascinating world of science accessible to all.

9th: Its impressive elegance makes the Opéra (opera house) undeniably one of Paris' most exquisite monuments. You can take in the waxworks at Musée Grévin , and stroll through Nouvelles Athènes (New Athens) near the St-Georges métro, but this area is also characterized by large department stores, including Printemps and Galeries Lafayette .

10th: Running the entire length of the Canal St-Martin , the Quais de Valmy and de Jemappes extend either side of the water to provide one of the most delightful walks in Paris; from Rue de la Temple to Place de Stalingrad you will pass many a lock and maybe the odd barge or two.

11th: Formerly the haunt of furniture craftsmen, the Bastille district now plays host to an entirely different scene: that of Paris' young and trendy in-crowd. Rue du Faubourg-St-Antoine has seen many restaurants and nightspots spring up and flourish. Neighbouring Rue de Lappe is probably the place to be seen on an evening, while others prefer the buzz of Rue Oberkampf a little further north.

12th: Paris' pleasure beach can be found here, between the Seine and the Place de la Bastille , where the imposing Opéra Bastille stands. The Palais Omnisport de Paris-Bercy serves as the venue for a variety of sporting and musical events, which often sell out very quickly, so be warned! Located to the far west of the city, but still within its limits, the Bois de Vincennes is a wonderful place to wander, especially around the lake.

13th: The easterly part of this district is known as "Chinatown", inhabited by numerous Chinese and Asian restaurants, shops and supermarkets. The Bibliothèque nationale de France (National Library) has also taken up residence in this area, overlooking the Quai de la Gare on the Seine. To the west of the district, meander through the small village of Buttee-aux-Cailles - an extraordinary find in the capital city.

14th: Rue d'Alésia stands out for its array of clothing shops, while Parc Montsouris is arguably one of the most charming green spots in the city. The Cité Internationale, where international students reside, stands just opposite and is well worth a visit as it features architectural styles from all over the world. Finally, you can take a look at the Bronze Lion of Belfort or at Rodin's Balzac in Place Denfert-Rochereau.

15th: Set along the banks of the Seine, the delightful André-Citroën Park in this district was, of course, named in honor of the famous car manufacturer, while a little further north, overlooking the river, you'll find Paris' skyline of skyscrapers peering down at a replica (or did this one come first?) of the Statue of Liberty.

16th: There's no denying that this is the most fashionable district of Paris. The Trocadéro offers a remarkable view of the city, as well as the Naval Museum ( Musée de la Marine ). Avenue Foch is destined to impress, as is Parc des Princes (Paris-Saint-Germain Stadium) . West of the ring road, roams the Bois de Boulogne forest, which although best avoided after dark, is a real delight during the day.

18th: The Basilique du Sacré-Coeur (the Basilica of the Sacred Heart) is another must-see monument in the City of Light. Looking up at the basilica from the market below is sure to take your breath away (as will all the steps you have to climb to reach it!). A short walk from the Sacré-Coeur takes you to Place du Tertre , drenched in the atmosphere of "old Paris" which cannot fail to captivate, even if it is teeming with tourists. Rue des Abesses, with its trendy boutiques and bars, draws a hipper kind of crowd alongside the famous Pigalle area - Paris' red light district, and home to a famous nightlife of cabarets and bars.

19th: The Cité des Sciences et de l'Industrie (Science and Industry Museum) was designed as Paris' window into the world of science. The Buttes Chaumont - an area of natural parkland - is the ideal place for a relaxing walk or a pic-nic.

20th: The most well-known cemetery in Paris, the Cimetière du Père-Lachaise is the final resting place of many famous artists, and is one of the most visited sites in the city. Memories of Jim Morrison are obviously still very much alive as his tomb is permanently carpeted with flowers. While the young artsy crowds of the city tend to hang out further and further to the east of the city - mainly in the Bastille district which is rapidly surrendering to consumerism - this area has managed to hold on to its working-class origins, hence its charm.

Texas is a state geographically located in the south-central part of the United States, which the Census Bureau places in a sub-region of the U.S. South designated West South Central. It is also known as the Lone Star State.
With an area of and a rapidly growing population of 23.5 million, as estimated in 2006, spread among 254 counties, Texas is the second largest U.S. state in both area and population. Dallas and Houston are the centers of the state's two largest metropolitan areas. Other major cities include the state capital of Austin, the state's oldest major city of San Antonio, and the western city of El Paso. Due to its long history as a center of the American cattle industry, Texas is associated throughout much of the world with the image of the cowboy.
Topographically, the easternmost section of the state is covered by the same piney woods that cover much of the Deep South. Moving westward, this evolves into semi-forests of oak and cross timbers then, as the climate gradually becomes more arid, turns into rolling plains and prairie and, eventually, desert in the Big Bend region surrounding El Paso. It is these wide open spaces of the Texas prairie that have lent currency to the phrase that "everything is bigger in Texas."
Because of its large size and unique history, the regional affiliation of Texas is often debated. Historically and culturally, it has very close ties to the South. However, due to Texas's history as a Spanish colony, its border with Mexico, and its large Latino population, Texas can also be considered a Southwestern state. Nevertheless, while most residents acknowledge these categories, many claim an independent "Texan" identity superseding regional labels.
Spain was the first European country to claim Texas. Starting in the 1820s, North American and European immigrants began arriving in the area, and in 1836 Texas declared its independence from Mexico, and continued to exist as the independent Republic of Texas for nearly a decade. In 1845, it joined the United States as the 28th state. Texas is one of only four independent states to enter the US federation. Annexation of Texas led the United States to war with Mexico leading to the Mexican Cession and helping to plant seeds for the U.S. Civil War. Texas was the 7th state to join the Confederate States of America. Near the turn of the 19th century, discovery of oil led to an economic boom in the state and greatly increased funding for higher education. Texas grew rapidly, becoming the second largest state in population by 1994, and became economically diversified, with a growing base in high technology.

Etymology

The state's name derives from , a word in the Caddoan language of the Hasinai, which means "friends" or "allies".
The word Texas has found its way into the American English vernacular in ways not directly related to the actual state. Due to the state's large geographic size, the term "Texas sized" is often used to describe large things. The state's name has been used as part of several brands such as the Louisville, Kentucky restaurant chain, Texas Roadhouse, and the multinational semiconductor corporation, Texas Instruments. Texas Hold 'Em is the most popular form of poker in the world.
A shortened form of "Texas", Tex, has been used as a nickname for someone having been born and/or raised in the state. Some people nicknamed "Tex" include basketball coach Tex Winter and original Dallas Cowboys president and general manager Tex Schramm. Tex also has been used as a prefix for several words related to Texas including Tex-Mex or the city Texarkana.
The common nickname for the state, The Lone Star State comes from the single star of the former Republic of Texas. The star is still found on the state seal and flag, symbolizing Texas's fight for independence and that Texas was an independent republic.

History

Prior to European colonization, Texas was inhabited by Native American nations such as the Caddo, Comanche and Apache. Spain was the first European country to claim the territory of Texas. Starting in the 1820s, American and European immigrants began arriving in the area. Mexico declared its independence from Spain, and Texas declared its independence from Mexico in 1836. Following this date, Texas existed as the independent republic for nearly a decade. In 1845, it joined the United States as the 28th state. Texas is one of only four independent states to enter the US federation. Annexation of Texas led the United States to war with Mexico leading to the Mexican Cession. In the American Civil War, Texas was the 7th state to join the Confederate States of America. Near the turn of the 19th century, discovery of oil led to an economic boom in the state. Texas grew rapidly, becoming the second largest state in population 1994, diversifying its economy, with a growing base in high technology.
Texas boasts that "Six Flags" have flown over its soil: the national flags of Spain, the Fleur-de-lis of France, Mexico, the Republic of Texas, the Confederate States of America, and the United States of America.
American Indian tribes who once lived inside the boundaries of present-day Texas include Apache, Atakapan, Bidai, Caddo, Comanche, Cherokee, Kiowa, Tonkawa, Wichita, Hueco and the Karankawa of Galveston. Currently, there are three federally recognized Native American tribes which reside in Texas: the Alabama-Coushatta Tribe of Texas, the Kickapoo Traditional Tribe of Texas, and the Ysleta Del Sur Pueblo of Texas.

Colonization

Alonso Álvarez de Pineda, creator of the first map of the northern Gulf Coast, made the first documented European sighting of Texas in 1519. On 6 November 1528, shipwrecked Spanish conquistador Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca became the first known European in Texas. Texas was immediately claimed by Spain as part of New Spain. but was not settled immediately. In 1685 La Salle established the first European community in Texas, the French colony of Fort Saint Louis. The colony, located along Matagorda Bay, lasted only four years before succumbing to harsh conditions and hostile natives.
Due to the perceived French encroachment, Spain established its first presence in Texas in 1691 constructing of several missions in East Texas. The missions failed quickly, and Spain did not resettle Texas until two decades had passed. Spain returned to East Texas in 1716, establishing several missions and a presidio to maintain a buffer between Mexico and the French territory of Louisiana. Two years later, the first civilian settlement in Texas, San Antonio, was established as a way station between the missions and the nearest existing Spanish settlement. San Antonio quickly became a target for raids by the Lipan Apache. In 1749, the Spanish signed a peace treaty with the Apache, which angered the enemies of the Apache and resulted in raids by the Comanche, Tonkawa, and Hasinai tribes. Fear of Indian attacks and remoteness from the rest of the kingdom discouraged settlers from moving to Texas, and it remained one of the least populated provinces of New Spain.
The Comanche signed a treaty with Spain in 1785 and later assisted in defeating the Lipan Apache and Karankawa tribes which had continued to cause difficulties for Spanish settlers. An increase in the number of missions in the province allowed for a peaceful conversion of other tribes, and by the end of the 1700s only a few of the hunting and gathering tribes had not been Christianized.
Although Spain also held Louisiana for several years, in 1799 it ceded the neighboring territory back to France. Napoleon selling of Louisiana to the United States the following year, led to a border dispute of Texas. U.S. President Thomas Jefferson insisted that the purchase included all land to the east of the Rocky Mountains and to the north of the Rio Grande. The dispute was resolved in 1819, with the signing of the Adams-Onís Treaty recognizing the Sabine River as Texas's eastern boundary. Two years later, the state became a province of Mexico after the Mexican War of Independence.
Moses Austin was the first Anglo American to receive permission to settle in Texas, but died before he could bring settlers to Texas. His son, Stephen F. Austin, continued his father's work. In 1821, Texas became part of the newly independent Republic of Mexico and, in 1824, became the northern section of Coahuila y Tejas. Spain's policy of allowing only full-blooded Spaniards to settle Texas also ended with Mexico's independence. On 3 January 1823, Stephen F. Austin began a colony of 297 Anglo-American families known as the "Old Three Hundred" along the Brazos River, after Austin was authorized to do so by Governor Antonio María Martínez and then successive Mexican officials as Mexico went through tumultuous political regime changes. Austin soon organized even more groups of immigrants, with authorization from the Mexican government. By 1830, the 30,000 Anglo settlers in Texas outnumbered Tejanos two to one.

Independence

The Convention of 1832 and the Convention of 1833 were responses to rising unrest at policies of the Mexican government, which included ending duty free imports from the United States and the threat of losing a special allowance for slavery in the state. Slavery was abolished in Mexico after its independence. In 1835, Antonio López de Santa Anna, President of Mexico, proclaimed a unified constitution for all Mexican territories, including Texas.
On 2 March 1836, the Convention of 1836 signed a Declaration of Independence. On 21 April 1836, the Texans - led by General Sam Houston - won their independence at the Battle of San Jacinto. Santa Anna's capture led to the Treaties of Velasco, which gave Texas firm boundaries; Mexico repudiated the treaties, considered Texas a breakaway province, and vowed to reconquer it. Later in 1836, the Texans adopted a constitution that formally legalized slavery. The Republic of Texas included the area of the present state of Texas, and additional unoccupied territory to the west and northwest.

Statehood

Most Texans wanted their Republic to be annexed into the United States because of the Republic's defensive and financial difficulties. Events such as the Dawson Massacre and two recaptures of Béxar in Texas of 1842 added momentum to the desire for statehood. However, strong Northern opposition to adding another slave state blocked Texas's admission until pro-annexation James K. Polk won the election of 1844. On 29 December 1845, Texas was admitted to the U.S. as a constituent state of the Union. Texas was the only state to enter the United States by treaty instead of territorial annexation. The Mexican–American War followed, with decisive victories by the U.S. Post war Texas grew rapidly as migrants poured into the cotton lands of the state.

Confederate States of America

Just before the American Civil War, elected delegates met in convention and authorized secession from the U.S. on 1 February 1861. Texas voters later approved the measure in referendum, and the state was accepted as a charter member by the provisional government of the Confederate States of America on 1 March 1861. Texas was a "supply state" for the Confederate forces until mid-1863, when the Union capture of the Mississippi River made large movements of men or cattle impossible. The last battle of the Civil War was fought in Texas, at Palmito Ranch, on 12 May 1865, at least a month after the surrender of the Confederate armies in the eastern theatres of war.
Texas descended into near-anarchy during the two months between the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia and the assumption of authority by Union General Gordon Granger, as Confederate forces demobilized or disbanded and government property passed into private hands through distribution or plunder. Juneteenth commemorates the announcement of the Emancipation Proclamation on 19 June 1865 in Galveston by General Gordon Granger; nearly 1-1/2 years after the original announcement of 1 January 1863. President Johnson, on 20 August 1866, declared that civilian government had been restored to Texas. On 30 March 1870 the Congress readmitted Texas into the Union, despite not meeting all reconstruction requirements.

Modern Texas

The first major oil well in Texas was Spindletop, a little hill south of Beaumont, on the morning of 10 January 1901. Other oil fields were later discovered nearby in East Texas, West Texas, and under the Gulf of Mexico. The resulting “Oil Boom” permanently transformed the economy of Texas. Oil production eventually averaged three million barrels of oil per day at its peak in 1972. The economy, which had shown significant progress since the American Civil War, was dealt a double blow by the Great Depression and the Dust Bowl.
From 1950 through the 1960s, Texas modernized and dramatically expanded its system of higher education. Under the leadership of Governor John B. Connally, the state created a long-range plan for higher education, a more rational distribution of resources, and a central state apparatus designed to manage state institutions more efficiently. These changes, helped Texas universities receive federal research funds during the Kennedy and Johnson administrations.

Geography

The geography of Texas spans a wide range of features and timelines. Texas is the southernmost part of the Great Plains, which ends in the south against the folded Sierra Madre Oriental of Mexico. It is in the south-central part of the United States of America. It is considered to form part of the U.S. South and also part of the U.S. Southwest.
The Rio Grande, Red River and Sabine River all provide natural state lines where Texas borders Oklahoma on the north, Louisiana and Arkansas on the east, & the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south. But to the west, the borders with the State of New Mexico & with the panhandle of Oklahoma are not based on natural features of terrain.
Some residents divide Texas into five regions: North, East, Central, South, and West. Texas Almanac divides Texas into four physical regions: Gulf Coastal Plains, Interior Lowlands, Great Plains, and The Basin and Range Province. This is the difference between human geography and physical geography.
Some regions of Texas are more associated with the South than the Southwest (primarily East Texas, Central Texas, and North Texas), while others share more similarities with the latter (primarily far West Texas and South Texas). The upper Texas Panhandle and the South Plains parts of West Texas do not easily fit into either category. The former has much in common with the Midwestern United States, while the latter, originally settled primarily by anglo Southerners, yet with a notable Hispanic population, is somewhat of a blend of South and Southwest.
The size of Texas prohibits easy categorization of the entire state wholly in any recognized region of the United States; geographic, economic, and even cultural diversity between regions of the state preclude treating Texas as a region in its own right.

Geology

Texas is the southernmost part of the Great Plains, which ends in the south against the folded Sierra Madre Occidental of Mexico. The continental crust here is a stable Mesoproterozoic craton which changes across a broad continental margin and transitional crust into true oceanic crust of the Gulf of Mexico. The oldest rocks in Texas date from the Mesoproterozoic and are about 1,600 million years old. These Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks underly most of the state, and are exposed in three places: Llano uplift, Van Horn, and the Franklin Mountains, near El Paso. This is overlain by mostly sedimentary rocks. The oldest sediments were deposited on the flanks of a rifted continental margin, or passive margin that developed during Cambrian time. This margin existed until Laurasia and Godwana collided in Pennsylvanian time to form Pangea. This is the buried crest of the Appalachian Mountains - Ouachita Mountains - Marathon Mountains zone of Pennsylvanian continental collision. This orogenic crest is today buried beneath the Dallas - Waco - Austin - San Antonio trend. During this time E. Texas was a region of high mountains and shallow seas covered W. Texas.
The late Paleozoic mountains collapsed as rifting in Jurassic time began to open the Gulf of Mexico. Pangea began to break up in the Triassic but seafloor spreading to form the Gulf of Mexico occurred only in the mid and late Jurassic. The shoreline shifted again to the eastern margin of the state and the Gulf of Mexico passive margin began to form. Today there are to of sediments buried beneath the Texas continental shelf and a large proportion of remaining US oil reserves are to be found here. At the start of its formation, the incipient Gulf of Mexico basin was restricted and seawater often evaporated completely to form thick evaporite deposits of Jurassic age. These salt deposits have buoyantly risen up through the passive margin sediments to form salt dome diapirs, commonly found in East Texas, along the Gulf coast.
East Texas outcrops consist of Cretaceous and Paleogene sediments with contain important deposits of Eocenelignite. Oil is found in the Mississippian ad Pennsylvanian sediments in the north, Permian sediments in the west, Cretaceous sediments in the east, and along the Gulf coast and out on the Texas continental shelf. Oligocene volcanic rocks are found in far west Texas, in the Big Bend area. A blanket of Miocene sediments known as the Ogallala formation in the western high plains region is an important aquifer. Texas has no active or dormant volcanoes and few earthquakes, being situated far from an active plate tectonic boundary.

Climate

The large size of Texas and its location at the intersection of several climate zones gives the state highly variable weather. In general, though, there are three main climate zones: the humid subtropical climate (Koppen Cfa) of the eastern half of Texas, the temperate semi-arid (Koppen BSk) steppe climate of the northwestern part, including the Panhandle, and the subtropical steppe climate (nearly an arid desert climate, Koppen BSh) of the southern parts of West Texas, particularly around El Paso.
The Panhandle of the state is colder in winter than North Texas, while the Gulf Coast has mild winters. Texas has wide variations in precipitation patterns. El Paso, on the western end of the state, averages as little as of annual rainfall while Houston, on the southeast Texas averages as much as per year. Dallas in the North Central region averages a more moderate per year. Snowfall often falls in the winter months in the north. Maximum temperatures in the summer months average from the 80s °F (26 °C) in the mountains of West Texas and on Galveston Island to around in the Rio Grande Valley. Nighttime summer temperatures range from the upper 50s °F (14 °C) in the West Texas mountains to in Galveston.
Thunderstorms are very common in Texas, especially the eastern and northern portion of the state. Texas also experiences the highest number of tornadoes out of every state in the Union, with an average of around 139 a year. Although these tend to strike most frequently in North Texas and the Panhandle, every part of the state is subject to these violent storms. Tornadoes occur mostly between the months of April-July but may strike at any time of the year.
Texas emits the most greenhouse gases out of any state. The state's annual carbon dioxide emissions are nearly 1.5 trillion pounds (680 billion kg). Texas would be the world's seventh-largest producer of greenhouse gases if it were its own country. Much of the greenhouse gas emissions come from the state's refining and manufacturing industries which provide the bulk of the United States's petroleum and plastics.

Government and politics

The Texas Constitution - adopted in 1876 - is the second-oldest state constitution still in effect. As with many state constitutions, it explicitly provides for the separation of powers and incorporates its bill of rights directly into the text of the constitution (as Article I). The bill of rights is considerably lengthier and more detailed than the federal Bill of Rights, and includes provisions unique to Texas.

Political system

The executive branch consists of the Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Comptroller of Public Accounts, Land Commissioner, Attorney General, Agriculture Commissioner, the three-member Texas Railroad Commission, the State Board of Education, and the Secretary of State. All of these positions are elected by the populace, with the exception of the Secretary of State, who is appointed by the Governor. The governor, Rick Perry, commands the state militia and can veto bills passed by the Legislature and call special sessions of the Legislature (an exclusive power for the Governor). The Governor also appoints members of various executive boards and fills judicial vacancies between elections. The Comptroller decides if expected state income is sufficient to cover proposed state budgets. The executive branch also consists of state agencies, boards and commissions. .
The bicameral Legislature's the House of Representatives has 150 members, and its Senate, 31. The speaker, currently Tom Craddick leads the House, and the Lieutenant Governor, currently David Dewhurst, leads the Senate. The Legislature meets in regular session only once every two years. The Governor can call a special sessions, as often as desired.

Justice system

The judicial system of Texas is one of the most complex in the United States, with many layers and many overlapping jurisdictions. Texas has two courts of last resort: the Texas Supreme Court, for civil cases, and the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals. Except for some municipal benches, partisan elections select judges at all levels of the judiciary; the Governor fills vacancies by appointment.
The justice system in Texas has a strict sentencing for criminals. Texas leads the nation in executions, with 400 executions from 1982 to 2007. Only capital murder is eligible for the death penalty. A bill making the rape of a child a capital crime in some instances is currently under consideration. Before 2005, the alternate sentence was life with the possibility of parole after 40 calendar years; in 2005, the law was modified to make the alternate sentence life without parole.
Known for their role in Texas law enforcement history, the Texas Ranger Division of the Texas Department of Public Safety continue to provide special law enforcement services to the state. Texas Game Wardens - law enforcement officers working for the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department - are given the same amount of authority as any other law enforcement officer. It is a common myth that they can enter private property without a search warrant and search people or vehicles with no probable cause.

Administrative divisions

There are 32 congressional districts in Texas, the second-most after California.
Texas has a total of 254 counties - the most of any state. Each county is run by a commissioners’ court consisting of four elected commissioners and a county judge elected from all the voters of the county. County government is similar to the "weak" mayor-council system; the county judge has no veto authority, but votes along with the other commissioners. All county elections are partisan.
Unlike other states, Texas does not allow for consolidated city-county governments, nor does it have a form of metropolitan government. Cities and counties are permitted to enter "interlocal agreements" to share services. Further, counties are not granted "home rule" status; their powers are strictly defined by state law and the Texas Constitution.
Texas does not have townships - areas within a county are either incorporated or unincorporated. Incorporated areas are part of a municipality either as a town or a city, though it may contract with the county for needed services. Unincorporated areas are not part of a municipality; in these areas, the county has authority for law enforcement and road maintenance. Municipalities are classified as either "general law" or "home rule". A municipality may elect home rule status (draft an independent charter) once it exceeds 5,000 population and the voters agree to home rule. Otherwise, it is classified as general law and has very limited powers. All municipal elections in Texas are nonpartisan. Once a municipality elects home rule status, it keeps that status even if the population later falls below 5,000.

Political parties

The Democratic Party held a monolithic political presence in Texas from the beginning of its statehood until the late 20th century. Like many "Solid South" states, Texas harbored a deep resentment towards the Republican Party for the Radical Reconstruction after the American Civil War. Conservative Democrats however, endorsed many Republican presidential candidates because they perceived a liberal shift in their national party. When President Lyndon Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, he reportedly said "We have lost the South."
In 1978, the state elected its first post-reconstruction Republican governor, and in 2003, Republicans, for the first time, gained control of the state legislature. Today, Republicans control most of Texas's House delegation, and both U.S. Senators. Of the 32 congressional districts in Texas, 19 seats are held by Republicans and 13 by Democrats. The Republicans that represent Texas in the U.S. Senate are Kay Bailey Hutchison (since 1993) and John Cornyn (since 2003). Since 1994 Texans have not elected a Democrat to a statewide office. The remains of the state's Democratic presence is primarily comprised of minority groups and urban voters, particularly in Austin. Democrats and independents still hold many positions in city governments.
The Texas political atmosphere leans towards fiscal and social conservatism. Since 1980 Texas supported Republican Presidential canditates. In 2000 and 2004 Republican George W. Bush won Texas with 60.1% of the vote. This is in part due to his popularity as a recent Governor of that state. Austin is considered the state's most liberal city or "populist" bastion, and Houston is among the few urban areas that consistently vote Republican, but their metropolitan areas are very divided politically. Dallas remains approximately split. In the southwest part of the state, particularly in El Paso, Democrats are strong.

Culture

In addition to Texas's traditional culture, immigration has caused Texas to become a melting pot of different cultures around the world. Texas's diverse and international culture is partly due to its academic institutions and strong biomedical, energy, manufacturing and aerospace industries.
The rodeo is a large part of the Texas culture. The annual Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo is the largest rodeo in the world. The event begins with trail rides that originate from several points throughout the state, all of which convene at Reliant Park. The World’s first rodeo was held in Pecos, Texas on 4 July 1883. The Southwestern Livestock Show and Rodeo in Fort Worth, Texas has many traditional rodeos, but also a cowboy rodeo, and a Mexican rodeo. The State Fair of Texas is held in Dallas, Texas each year at Fair Park.
Austin, Texas, the The Live Music Capital of the World, boasts the most venues per capita of any U.S. city. The city's music revolves around the nightclubs on 6th Street and an annual film, music, and multimedia festival known as South by Southwest. The longest-running concert music program on American television, Austin City Limits, is filmed on The University of Texas at Austin campus or in Zilker Park. Austin City Limits and Waterloo Records run the Austin City Limits Music Festival, an annual music and art festival held at Zilker Park.
Over the past couple of decades, San Antonio evolved into the "Nashville of Tejano music." The Tejano Music Awards have provided a forum to create greater awareness and appreciation for Tejano music and culture.

Arts and theatre

Known for the vibrancy of its visual and performing arts, the Houston Theatre District - a 17-block area in the heart of Downtown Houston - is ranked second in the country in the number of theatre seats in a concentrated downtown area with 12,948 seats for live performances and 1,480 movie seats.
Houston is also one of only five American cities with permanent professional resident companies in all of the major performing arts disciplines (the Houston Grand Opera, the Houston Symphony Orchestra, the Houston Ballet, and The Alley Theatre).
Fort Worth and Dallas serve as epicenters of the North Texas region's art scene. The Modern (formerly the Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth), founded in 1892, is the oldest art museum in Texas. The city is also home to the Kimbell Art Museum, the Amon Carter Museum, the National Cowgirl Museum and Hall of Fame, the Will Rogers Memorial Center, and the Bass Performance Hall downtown. The Arts District of Downtown Dallas is home to several arts venues. Notable venues in the district include the Dallas Museum of Art, the Morton H. Meyerson Symphony Center, The Trammell & Margaret Crow Collection of Asian Art, and the Nasher Sculpture Center.
Also within Dallas is the notable Deep Ellum district which originally became popular during the 1920s and 1930s as the prime jazz and blues hotspot in the Southern United States. The name Deep Ellum is thought to have originally derived from local tongues saying "Deep Elm", but that came out as "Deep Ellum". Artists such as Blind Lemon Jefferson, Robert Johnson, Huddie "Leadbelly" Ledbetter, and Bessie Smith played in original Deep Ellum clubs like The Harlem and The Palace. Today, Deep Ellum is home to hundreds of artists who live in lofts and operate in studios throughout the district alongside bars, pubs, and concert venues. One major art infusion in the area is the city's lax stance on graffiti, thusly several public ways including tunnels, sides of buildings, sidewalks, and streets are covered in murals.

Sports

Many Texans are passionate about American football and intensely follow high school and college football teams - often the dominate social and leisure activity. Texas is home to two NFL teams, the Houston Texans and the Dallas Cowboys, sometimes referred to as "America's Team".
Baseball has a strong presence in Texas, with Major League Baseball teams the Texas Rangers and Houston Astros. Minor league baseball is also closely followed in Texas - especially in the smaller metropolitan areas. The Fort Worth Cats are a team in Fort Worth, Texas that has won 3 straight championships, one in the Central Baseball League and the last two in the American Association.
Basketball is also popular, and Texas hosts three NBA teams: the Houston Rockets, the San Antonio Spurs, and the Dallas Mavericks. All three have reached the NBA Finals and the Houston Rockets and San Antonio Spurs have won championships. Additionally, Texas is home to two WNBA teams, the Houston Comets and the San Antonio Silver Stars. The Comets were the winners of the first four WNBA Championships in league history, in the 1997–2000 seasons.
Many Texas universities have rich athletic traditions. Originally, most Texas Division I universities were part of the Southwest Conference until it dissolved in 1996. Four of the largest programs in Texas are now part of the Big 12 Conference: the Baylor Bears, Texas Aggies, Texas Longhorns, and Texas Tech Red Raiders. In addition to the four Big 12 schools, Texas is home to six other Division I (Bowl Sub-Division) teams: the TCU Horned Frogs of the Mountain West Conference; the SMU Mustangs, the Houston Cougars, the Rice Owls and the UTEP Miners, all of Conference USA; and the North Texas Mean Green of the Sun Belt Conference. Texas has the most Division I-FBS schools in America, ten.
Hockey has been a growing participatory sport in the Dallas/Fort Worth area since the Minnesota North Stars became the Dallas Stars in 1993. Minor league professional hockey has become popular in the last few decades; such as the Houston Skippers USHL Louden Cup winners in 1948 with legendary coach Toe Blake. AHL Houston Aeros who won the IHL's Turner Cup in 1999 and the AHL Calder Cup in 2003 and two Avco Cups in the WHA. The San Antonio Rampage also play in the AHL. Texas is home to seven of the Central Hockey League's seventeen teams.
Other popular sports in Texas include year-round golf, fishing, and auto racing. Lacrosse, originally played by some of the indigenous tribes, is growing in popularity. Soccer is a popular participatory sport, especially among children, but as a spectator sport it does not yet have a large following despite two Texan teams in MLS and the back to back 2006 and 2007 MLS Cup winners Houston Dynamo in Major League Soccer.

Architecture

In addition to Texas's traditional architecture the state also has noteworthy contemporary buildings. Many world class architects and Pritzker Prize winners have left their enriching marks on Texan cities and landscapes. Frank Lloyd Wright had four buildings in Texas, while Tadao Ando's Modern Art Museum and Louis Kahn's famous Kimbell Art Museum are permanent landmarks of the city of Fort Worth. Other super architects such as I.M. Pei and Philip Johnson have numerous works across the state. Among their famous works one can mention the Fort Worth Water Gardens, Amon Carter Museum, Chapel of St. Basil, Morton H. Meyerson Symphony Center, and Thanks-Giving Square. In Austin, Gordon Bunshaft's Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum (also a Pritzker Prize winner) is particularly noteworthy, while Steven Holl, Robert A. M. Stern, Richard Meier, and César Pelli are other architect legends who designed buildings that grace the Dallas and Houston areas. Sir Norman Foster's Dallas Center for the Performing Arts is the latest addition to such architectural landmarks in Texas.
Some facilities even harbor the marks of multiple architects. Houston's Museum of Fine Arts for example, was designed by Pritzker Prize winner Rafael Moneo, landscape architect extraordinnaire Isamu Noguchi, and the pioneering master of Modern Architecture Mies van der Rohe.


Texas is also home to some of the tallest skyscrapers in the United States.
The Houston skyline has been ranked fourth-most impressive in the United States when ranked by breadth and height, being the country's third-tallest skyline and one of the top 10 in the world; however, because it is spread over a few miles, most pictures of the city show only the main downtown area. Houston has a system of tunnels and skywalks linking buildings in downtown. The tunnel system also includes shops, restaurants, and convenience stores.

Images shown below are the eight tallest buildings in Texas.

Healthcare and medicine

Texas is home to three of the world's elite research medical centers: the renowned Texas Medical Center in Houston, UT Southwestern Medical Center in Dallas, and the South Texas Medical Center in San Antonio - all hosting some of the world's most prestigious schools in the health sciences.
Houston is home to the Texas Medical Center, the world's largest concentration of research and healthcare institutions. There are 45 member institutions in the Texas Medical Center - all are non-profit organizations, and are dedicated to the highest standards of patient and preventive care, research, education, and local, national, and international community well-being. These institutions include 13 renowned hospitals and two specialty institutions, two medical schools, four nursing schools, and schools of dentistry, public health, pharmacy, and virtually all health-related careers. It is where one of the first, and still the largest, air emergency services was created - a very successful inter-institutional transplant program was developed - and the most heart surgeries are performed there in the world.
San Antonio's South Texas Medical Center facilities rank sixth in clinical medicine research impact in the United States with the University of Texas Health Science Center recognized as a "world leading research and educational institution". The South Texas Medical Center hosts no less than 12 hospitals, 45 medical institutions, and 3 universities, housing the nation's top schools in pharmacyUT Austin's School of Pharmacy:

Consistently ranks among the top 2 schools in Americ

Almost one third of its faculty is based at the University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio and dentistry.Current international ranking:. The last time US News and World Report ranked any dental school (1997), UTHSCSA ranked the top dental school of the United States.

Dallas is home to the American Heart Association and the UT Southwestern Medical Center, "among the top academic medical centers in the world". The University of Texas Southwestern Medical School at the center employs the most Nobel laureates working of any medical school in the world.
Texas has eight medical schools, three dental schools, and one optometry school, all involved in research and clinical operations. These include the Baylor College of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Texas A&M Health Science Center, and the University of North Texas Health Science Center. The M. D. Anderson Cancer Center is widely considered one of the world’s most productive and highly-regarded academic institutions devoted to cancer patient care, research, education and prevention.
Texas has two Biosafety Level 4 laboratories: one at The University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB) in Galveston, and the other at the Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research in San Antonio - the first privately owned BSL-4 lab in the United States.
In May 2006, Texas initiated the program "code red" in response to the report that Texas - at 25.1 percent - has the largest un-insured population of the nation.

Education

There are 181 colleges, universities and dozens of other institutions engaged in the research and development of Texas. Most public universities are members of five different systems: University of Houston, University of North Texas, University of Texas, Texas A&M University, Texas State, and Texas Tech. University of Texas at Austin, Texas A&M University, University of Texas at Dallas and University of Houston are Texas's four largest comprehensive doctoral degree-granting institutions with a combined enrollment of over 145,000.
The state also has many private universities. Rice University - one of the country’s leading teaching and research universities - ranked the 17th-best university overall in the nation by U.S. News & World Report. Additionally, Baylor University - the oldest university in the state - was chartered by the Republic of Texas.
The state's public school systems are administered by the Texas Education Agency (TEA). Texas has over 1,000 school districts - all but one of the school districts in Texas are separate from any form of municipal government. School districts may (and often do) cross city and county boundaries - an exception to this rule is Stafford Municipal School District. School districts have the power to tax their residents and to assert eminent domain over privately owned property.
Texas also has numerous private schools of all types. The TEA has no authority over private school operations; private schools may or may not be accredited, and achievement tests are not required for private school graduating seniors. Many private schools obtain accreditation and perform achievement tests to show parents the school's interest in educational performance.
The state has some of the least restrictions on home school. Neither TEA nor the local school district has authority to regulate home school activities. There is no minimum number of days in a year, or hours in a day, that must be met, and achievement tests are not required for home school graduating seniors. The validity of home schooling was challenged in Texas, but a landmark case, Leeper v. Arlington ISD, ruled that home schooling was legal and that the state had little authority to regulate the practice.
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External links

The State of Texas

The Handbook of Texas Online - Published by the Texas State Historical Association thousands of scholarly articles on every aspect of Texas history

The Portal to Texas History

Texas Historical Commission - Official website

Texas Register, hosted by the University of North Texas Libraries

Open Directory: Texas

Texas State Facts

USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Texas

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Washington, D.C., (pronounced ) is the capital of the United States. It is coterminous with the District of Columbia (abbreviated as "D.C."). The city and the district are located on the banks of the Potomac River and bordered by the states of Virginia (to the west) and Maryland (to the north, east and south). The city was planned and developed in the late 18th century to serve as the permanent national capital; the federal district was formed to keep the national capital distinct from the states.
The city was named after George Washington, the first President of the United States. The district's name, "Columbia," is an early poetic name for the United States and a reference to Christopher Columbus, an early explorer of the Americas. The city is commonly referred to as Washington, The District, or simply D.C. In the 19th century, it was called the Federal City or Washington City.
The centers of all three branches of the U.S. government are located in the District. Also situated in the city are the headquarters for the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the Organization of American States, the Inter-American Development Bank, and other national and international institutions, including labor unions and professional associations. Washington is a frequent location for political demonstrations and protests, large and small, particularly on the National Mall. A center of American history and culture, Washington is a popular destination for tourists, the site of numerous national landmarks and monuments, the world's largest museum complex (the Smithsonian Institution), galleries, universities, cathedrals, performing arts centers and institutions, and native music scenes. The District also includes substantial areas of surprisingly wild natural habitat, particularly along the Potomac and Anacostia rivers, as well as most parts of Rock Creek Park and Theodore Roosevelt Island (located in the Potomac River).
The District of Columbia and the city of Washington are governed by a single municipal government and for most practical purposes, are considered to be the same entity. This has not always been the case: until 1871, when Georgetown ceased to be a separate city, there were multiple jurisdictions within the District. Although there is a municipal government and a Mayor, Congress has the supreme authority over the city and district, which results in citizens having less self-governance than residents of the states. The District has a non-voting at-large Congressional representative. In the financial year 2004, federal tax collections were $16.9 billion while federal spending in the District was $37.6 billion.
The population of the District of Columbia is about 588,292. The Washington Metropolitan Area is the eighth-largest in the United States with more than five million residents, and the Baltimore-Washington Metropolitan Area has a population exceeding eight million. If Washington, D.C., were a state, it would rank last in area (behind Rhode Island), second to last in population (ahead of Wyoming), first in population density, and 35th in gross state product.

History

The District of Columbia, founded on July 16, 1790, is a federal district as specified by the United States Constitution. The land forming the original District came from the state of Maryland and Commonwealth of Virginia. However, the area south of the Potomac River (39 square miles or about 100 km²) was returned, or "retroceded", to Virginia in 1847 and now is incorporated into Arlington County and the City of Alexandria. The remaining land that constitutes the District of Columbia is the territory originally ceded by Maryland, including islands in the Potomac River.

Planning

A Southern site for the new country's capital was agreed upon at a dinner between James Madison and Alexander Hamilton, hosted by Thomas Jefferson. The site was part of the deal that led to the new national government's assumption of debts from the Revolutionary War. (The southern states had largely paid off their war debts; collectivizing debt was to northern advantage, so a southern capital was a compromise.) The city's plan was largely the work of Pierre Charles L’Enfant, a French-born architect, engineer and city planner who first arrived in the American colonies as a military engineer with Major General Lafayette. L'Enfant drew up a basic plan for Washington, D.C. in 1791; the city layout owed much to the Baroque style, which was the dominant style in many North American and European planned cities of the day. The plan incorporated broad avenues and major streets which radiate out from traffic circles and rectangular parks, providing open space and landscaping, sites for various statues and smaller memorials, and vistas towards important landmarks and monuments. (Many of these places now also serve as entrances to underground stations of the region's heavy-rail Metro public transit system.) While all of the original colonies had avenues named for them, the most prominent states received more prestigious locations under Andrew Ellicott's later plan for the city. Massachusetts Avenue was the northernmost of three principal east-west arteries, Virginia Avenue the southernmost, and Pennsylvania Avenue was given the honor of connecting the White House to the planned Capitol building. In the original plan, all three roads reached neighboring Georgetown. Maryland Avenue, another early major street, extended northeastward from the Capitol site to the original city limits, where it met the Bladensburg road to points north.
The initial plan for the "Federal District" was a diamond, measuring 10 miles (16 km) on each side, totaling 100 square miles (259 km²). The actual site on the Potomac River was chosen by President Washington. Washington may have chosen the site for its natural scenery, believing that the Patowmack Canal would transform the Potomac into a great navigable waterway leading to the Ohio and the American interior. The city was officially named "Washington" on September 9, 1791. Out of modesty, George Washington never referred to it as such, preferring to call it "the Federal City." Despite choosing the site and living nearby at Mount Vernon, he rarely visited the city. The federal district was named the District of Columbia because Columbia was a poetic name for the United States used at the time, which was close to the 300th anniversary of Christopher Columbus' first voyage to the Americas in 1492.
As originally platted, the District of Columbia was carved out of two adjacent counties - one in Virginia, one in Maryland — and the portion from each state was organized as a separate county. Alexandria County was on the south bank of the Potomac and was retroceded to Virginia in the nineteenth century (where it later became the independent city of Alexandria and the County of Arlington). The County of Washington was on the north bank. In addition to the new City of Washington being constructed in the geographic and geometric center of the District, there were a number of other communities — including Georgetown (founded in 1751 and named for its co-founders and/or King George II), Tenley, and the village commonly known today as "Anacostia." In time, all of these communities were amalgamated to the City of Washington, which thus became coextensive with the District of Columbia so that a separate County of Washington was no longer needed, so it was abolished.
As constructed, Washington City was centered on its current area but ended at present-day Rock Creek Park on the west and Florida Avenue and Benning Road on the north. Florida Avenue was then called "Boundary Street."
In 1791–92, Andrew Ellicott and Benjamin Banneker surveyed the border of the District with both Maryland and Virginia, placing boundary stones at every mile point; many of these still stand.
The cornerstone of the White House, the first newly constructed building of the new capital, was laid on October 13, 1792. That was the day after the first celebrations of Columbus Day in the United States.

19th century

On August 24, 1814, British forces burned the capital during the most notable raid of the War of 1812 in retaliation for the sacking and burning of York (modern-day Toronto) during the winter months, which had left many Canadians homeless. President James Madison and U.S. forces fled before the British forces arrived and burned public buildings, including the Capitol and the Treasury building. The White House was burned and gutted. The Washington Navy Yard was also burned - by American sailors - to keep ships and stores from falling into the hands of the British. The home of the Commandant of the Marine Corps, located at the Marine Barracks, was one of the few government buildings not burned by the raiding British soldiers out of a sign of respect, and is now the oldest public building in continuous use in the nation's capital. The Patent Office was also spared, as a result of the Superintendent of Patents pleading with British soldiers and contending that destroying the store of knowledge therein would be a disservice to mankind. Civilians were not directly targeted and, initially, the British had approached the city hoping to secure a truce. However, they were fired upon, triggering frustration and anger among the British, which ultimately led to the sacking of government buildings.
During the 1830s, the District was home to one of the largest slave trading operations in the country (see Alexandria, Virginia).
In 1846, the population of Alexandria County, who resented the loss of business with the competing port of Georgetown and feared greater impact if slavery were outlawed in the capital, voted in a referendum to ask Congress to retrocede Alexandria back to the Commonwealth of Virginia. Congress agreed to do so on July 9 of that year. The slave trade, though not slavery, in the capital was outlawed as part of the Compromise of 1850.
Washington remained a small city - the 1860 Census put the population at just over 75,000 people - until the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861. The significant expansion of the federal government to administer the war and its legacies such as veterans' pensions led to notable growth in the city's population, as did a large influx of freed slaves. By 1870, the District population had grown to nearly 132,000.
In July 1864, Confederate forces under General Jubal Anderson Early made a brief raid into Washington, culminating in the Battle of Fort Stevens. The Confederates were repelled, and Early eventually returned to the Shenandoah Valley in Virginia. The fort is located near present-day Walter Reed Army Medical Center in northwest Washington. This was the only battle where a U.S. president, Abraham Lincoln, was present and under fire while in office.
In the early 1870s, Washington was given a territorial government, but Governor Alexander Robey Shepherd's reputation for extravagance resulted in Congress abolishing his office in favor of direct rule. Congressional governance of the District would continue for a century.
In 1878, Congress passed an Organic Act that made the boundaries of the city of Washington coterminous with those of the District of Columbia. This effectively eliminated Washington County; Georgetown, technically made a part of the city, was allowed to remain nominally separate until 1895 when it was formally combined with Washington.
The Washington Monument, with construction stalled by other priorities, finally opened in 1888. Plans were laid to further develop the monumental aspects of the city, with work contributed by such noted figures as Frederick Law Olmsted and Daniel Burnham. However, development of the Lincoln Memorial, Jefferson Memorial and other structures on the National Mall, and construction of Potomac Park did not begin until the early 20th century.

20th century

The many Depression relief agencies created by President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal in the 1930's, followed by World War II in the 1940's, brought a great increase to the city's population. Roommates doubled up in scarce apartments and competed for space on buses and trolleys, as reported in David Brinkley's book. The District's population peaked in 1950, when the census for that year recorded a record population of 802,178 people. At the time, the city was the ninth-largest in the country, just ahead of Boston and close behind St. Louis. The population declined in the following decades, mirroring the suburban emigration from many of the nation's older urban centers following World War II and the racial integration of public schools.
The Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution was ratified on March 29, 1961, allowing residents of Washington, D.C., to vote for president and have their votes count in the Electoral College as long as the District does not have more electoral votes than the least populous state.
After the assassination of civil rights activist Martin Luther King, Jr., in Memphis, on April 4, 1968, riots broke out in some sections of the city. The violence raged for four days, and many stores and other buildings were burned. At one point, the rioters came within two blocks of the White House. President Lyndon B. Johnson ordered over 13,000 federal troops to occupy the city - the largest occupation of an American city since the Civil War. The city finally began construction on a subway system, with the first 4.6 miles (7.4 km) of the Washington Metro subway system opening March 27, 1976. Today the system knits together Washington and its suburbs with a network of 86 stations and of track.
In 1973, Congress enacted the District of Columbia Self-Rule and Governmental Reorganization Act, providing for an elected mayor and council for the District. As a result, Walter Washington became the first elected mayor of the District in 1975. Marion Barry became mayor in 1979 and served three successive four-year terms; however, after his arrest for drug use in an FBI sting operation on January 18, 1990, and his sentence to a six-month jail term, he did not seek re-election. His successor, Sharon Pratt Kelly, became the first black woman to lead a U.S. city of Washington's size and importance. Barry, however, ran again in 1994, defeating her in the Democratic primary and once again becoming mayor. During his fourth term, the city nearly became insolvent and was forced to give up some home rule to a congressionally-appointed financial control board. In 1998, Anthony A. Williams was elected the city's mayor and led the city into fiscal recovery. In 2006, Adrian Fenty was elected mayor. Among Mayor Fenty's many promises are increased attention to every citizen of the city and a world-class atmosphere in business and residence.
During the 1970s, many in the District referred to it as "Chocolate City" in reference to the city's Black majority and African American culture. Popularized by two local disc jockeys, the nickname was also a reference to the 1975 album Chocolate City by Parliament-Funkadelic. While the nickname never caught on permanently, it was a reminder of the contributions to the city over the years by such icons as Duke Ellington, Chuck Brown, and other African-American performers. During his Correspondents' Dinner speech in 2006, Stephen Colbert referred to the city as "the Chocolate City with the marshmallow center."

21st century

On September 11, 2001, American Airlines Flight 77, a Boeing 757, was hijacked and deliberately crashed into the Pentagon at 9:37AM, just across the Potomac River in Arlington, Virginia, causing a partial collapse of one side of the building. Al-Qaeda leader Abu Zubaydah told American officials while under interrogation that the White House was the intended target. Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and Ramzi Binalshibh have said that the United States Capitol was the intended target of another hijacked flight that same day, United Airlines Flight 93, which crashed near Shanksville, Pennsylvania.

Geography

Topography

Washington, D.C., is located at (the coordinates of the Zero Milestone, on the Ellipse). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 68.3 square miles (177.0 km²). 61.4 square miles (159.0 km²) of it is land and 6.9 square miles (18.0 km²) of it (10.16%) is water.
Washington is surrounded by the states of Maryland (on its southeast, northeast and northwest sides) and Virginia (on its western side); it interrupts those states' common border, which is the Potomac River's southern shore both upstream and downstream from the District. The Potomac River as it passes Washington is virtually entirely within the District of Columbia border because of colonial riparian rights between Maryland and Virginia.
The District has three major natural flowing streams: the Potomac River, the Anacostia River and Rock Creek. The Anacostia River and Rock Creek are tributaries of the Potomac River. There are also three man-made reservoirs: Dalecarlia Reservoir, which crosses over the northwest border of the District from Maryland; McMillan Reservoir near Howard University; and Georgetown Reservoir upstream of Georgetown and downstream of Rock Creek Park.
The highest point in the District of Columbia is 410 feet (125 m) above sea level in Tenleytown. The lowest point is sea level, which occurs along all of the Anacostia shore and all of the Potomac shore except the uppermost portion (the Little Falls area, upstream of Chain Bridge). The sea-level Tidal Basin rose eleven feet during Hurricane Isabel on September 18, 2003.
The geographic center of the District of Columbia is located near 4th Street NW, L Street NW, and New York Avenue NW (not under the Capitol Dome, as is sometimes said).
Geographical features of Washington, D.C. include Theodore Roosevelt Island, Columbia Island, the Three Sisters Islands and Hains Point.

Climate

Washington has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfa). Its climate is typical of Mid-Atlantic U.S. areas removed from bodies of water, with four distinct seasons.
Summer tends to be hot and humid with daily high temperatures in July and August averaging in the high 80s to low 90s (in °F; about 30° to 33 °C). The combination of heat and humidity in the summer brings very frequent thunderstorms, some of which occasionally produce tornadoes in the area. The combination of heat and humidity can also be reminiscent of a true tropical climate.
Spring and fall are mild with high temperatures in April and October averaging in the high 60s to low 70s (about 20 °C).
Winter brings sustained cool temperatures and occasional snowfall. Average highs tend to be in the low 40s (6 to 8 °C) and lows in the mid 20s (-5 to -2 °C) from mid-December to mid-February. Additionally, Arctic air can lower nighttime lows into the teens, even in the city.
While tropical cyclones (or their remnants) occasionally track through the area in late summer and early fall, they have often weakened by the time they reach Washington partly because of the city's inland location. Flooding of the Potomac River, however—caused by a combination of high tide, storm surge, and storm runoff—has been known to cause extensive property damage in Georgetown and Old Town Alexandria, Virginia.
Spring is generally the most favorable time of year, with low humidity, mild temperatures, and many kinds of trees, shrubs, and other plants in bloom. This period generally lasts from late March until mid-May. Because the heat island effect is not as pronounced, temperatures of the Dulles Airport area and suburbs to the west and north are on average 6 to 7 °F (3 °C) cooler than Washington year-round, so a weather forecast for the city may not be accurate for outlying suburbs.
The average annual snowfall is 16.6 inches (422 mm), and some outlying suburbs to the north and west receive upwards of six more inches of snowfall each year.
The average high temperature in January is 41 °F (5 °C); the average low for January is 27 °F (-3 °C). The average annual temperature is 57.5 °F (14.1 °C). The highest recorded temperature was 106 °F (41 °C) on July 20, 1930 and August 6, 1918 and the lowest recorded temperature was -15 °F (-26 °C) on February 11, 1899, during the Blizzard of 1899..

Nature

Washington, D.C., has many natural areas and birdwatching spots within the city's limits. The District's parks and natural areas include Anacostia Park, the United States National Arboretum, the very large Rock Creek Park, the Smithsonian National Zoological Park, Theodore Roosevelt Island, the C&O Canal, the Potomac River, and the Anacostia River. The Potomac River, flowing through Washington, D.C., has been called one of the wildest urban rivers in the nation, if not the world. Great Falls, with its rapids and islands, is located on the Potomac upstream of Washington. This area was once surveyed by George Washington for a "Pawtomack" Canal that would allow barge traffic to bypass Great Falls. The Potomac Gorge, cut into hard metamorphic bedrock, extends from Great Falls downstream to Georgetown (D.C.), the Rosslyn area of Arlington (Virginia), and Theodore Roosevelt Island (D.C.), all located at the boundary between the Piedmont and the Coastal Plain.
Most of the natural habitat in Washington, D.C., is managed by the U.S. National Park Service, with the Potomac Gorge considered one of the most significant natural areas in the entire National Park System.. The U.S. Department of Agriculture's Agricultural Research Service operates the National Arboretum, and various other federal agencies, military and civilian, have minor holdings of wild land within the District. The ubiquitous federal presence and land-management responsibilities in the Washington region make the area a crucible for applied research and adaptive management for urban ecosystems. such as the restoration of Kenilworth Marsh, a remnant of the original tidal marshes of Washington, D.C., on the Anacostia River. The Potomac River, once called a national disgrace by President Lyndon Johnson, is now home to a vibrant warm-water fishery. Professional bass tournaments have been held within view of the Jefferson Memorial, and naturally reproducing Bald Eagles have returned to its banks. Despite its intensely urbanized landscape, the District of Columbia is a center for research on urban wildlife management, urban stream restoration, and the aquatic ecology of urban streams. The National Park Service's Center For Urban Ecology is a regional source of expertise and applied science on "land use change and urban development, habitat fragmentation, biodiversity and maintenance of ecosystem processes" for the region.

Culture

Tourism

Washington is home to numerous national landmarks and is one of the most popular tourist destinations in the United States. The National Mall is a large, open park area in the center of the city featuring many monuments to American leaders; it also serves to connect the White House and the United States Capitol buildings. Located prominently in the center of the Mall is the Washington Monument. Other notable points of interest near the Mall include the Jefferson Memorial (see right), Lincoln Memorial, Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial, National World War II Memorial, Korean War Veterans Memorial, Vietnam Veterans Memorial, District of Columbia War Memorial, Albert Einstein Memorial, and United States Navy Memorial.
The world famous Smithsonian Institution is located in the District. The Smithsonian today is a collection of free museums that includes the Anacostia Museum, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Hirshhorn Museum, National Air and Space Museum, National Museum of American History, National Museum of the American Indian, National Museum of Natural History, National Portrait Gallery, National Postal Museum, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Renwick Gallery and National Zoo.
There are many art museums in D.C., in addition to those that are part of the Smithsonian, including the free National Gallery of Art, National Museum of Women in the Arts, Corcoran Gallery of Art and Phillips Collection.
The Library of Congress and the National Archives house thousands of documents covering every period in American history. Some of the more notable documents in the National Archives include the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution and the Bill of Rights.
The District of Columbia operates its own public library system with 27 branches throughout the city. The main branch  - which occupies a multi-story glass and steel-framed building at the intersection of 9th and G Streets, N.W., designed by modernist architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe - is known as the Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial Library. It has a large mural in its main hall depicting the civil rights leader.
Other points of interest in the District include Arena Stage, Chinatown, Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception, the Ukrainian Catholic National Shrine of the Holy Family (across the street from the Basilica Shrine), Blair House, Cathedral of St. Matthew the Apostle, Folger Shakespeare Library, Ford's Theatre, Frederick Douglass National Historic Site, International Spy Museum, National Building Museum, National Geographic Society, the Awakening at Hains Point, Old Post Office Building, Theodore Roosevelt Island, Franciscan Monastery, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Victims of Communism Memorial, and the Washington National Cathedral.

Performing arts

Washington is a major national center for the arts, with many venues for the performing arts in the city. Arena Stage, one of the first non-profit regional theaters in the nation, is rich with history and produces an eight-show season ranging from classics to world premieres, dedicated to the American canon of theater. The Shakespeare Theatre Company is regarded as one of the world's great Shakespeare troupes. Numerous other professional theaters, such as The Studio Theatre and Woolly Mammoth, and venues such as the National Theatre, make the city a major theater center. The John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts hosts the National Symphony Orchestra, the Washington National Opera, the Washington Ballet, and a variety of other musical and stage performances.
The Lincoln Theatre hosted the likes of Duke Ellington and Ella Fitzgerald on U Street (known as "Washington's Black Broadway") prior to the 1968 riots. Notable local music clubs include Madam's Organ Blues Bar in Adams Morgan; Blues Alley in Georgetown; the Eighteenth Street Lounge in the Dupont Circle district; and the Black Cat, the , the Bohemian Caverns jazz club, the Twins jazz clubs, all in the U Street NW area. The U Street area actually contains more than two dozen bars, clubs, and restaurants that feature jazz either nightly or several times a week.
Notable Washingtonians in the entertainment industry include singer-songwriter Marvin Gaye, musician Ian MacKaye, film actress Merle Oberon, comedian David Chappelle, musician Duke Ellington, filmmaker Ted Salins and two members of the rock group Jefferson Airplane: guitarist Jorma Kaukonen and bass player Jack Cassidy.

Music

D.C. has its own native music genre, called go-go, a post-funk, percussion-driven flavor of R&B that blends live sets with relentless dance rhythms, so-called because they "go and go and go". The most accomplished practitioner of go-go was D.C. band leader Chuck Brown, who brought go-go to the brink of national recognition with his 1979 LP Bustin' Loose. Go-Go band and Washington natives Experience Unlimited (E.U.) hit the American pop charts in 1988 with their memorable dance tune "Da Butt" Other notable go-go bands include Rare Essence, Trouble Funk, Junkyard Band, Backyard Band, and the Northeast Groovers.
Washington was an important center in the genesis of punk rock in the United States. Punk bands of note from Washington include Tru Fax & the Insaniacs, the Slickee Boys, Fugazi, Bad Brains, the Dismemberment Plan, Government Issue, Scream, Penguin's Exploding Octopus, The Psychotics, and Minor Threat. Washingtonians continue to support punk bands, long after the punk movement's popularity peaked. The region also has a significant indie rock history and was home to TeenBeat, Dischord Records and Simple Machines, among other indie record labels.

Television shows

There have been several television series that have featured the District. Most of these have been related to government (The West Wing and Commander in Chief) or security organizations (24, The District, Get Smart, Bones, and, most famously, The X-Files). Other programs had the nation's capital as a secondary focus, using it merely as a city setting. For instance, Murphy Brown focused on the lives of the reporters of the (fictional) Washington-based television newsmagazine, FYI. The soap opera Capitol allowed for stories about political intrigue alongside the traditional class struggle sagas. The sitcom 227 portrayed the life of the African American majority as seen through the eyes of residents in a Washington apartment building. Disney's spinoff to "That's So Raven", "Cory in the House", is another sitcom set in Washington DC. The premise of the show is Cory's father gets a job at The White House as the chief chef.

Sports

Other professional and semi-professional teams based in D.C. include the USAFL Baltimore Washington Eagles, the NWFA D.C. Divas, the Minor League Football D.C. Explosion, the Washington RFC rugby union team of the Rugby Super League, as well as a host of others playing in the Potomac Rugby Union and the Washington Cricket League. It was also home to the WUSA Washington Freedom, from 1987 to 1989 home of the Major Indoor Lacrosse League's Washington Wave, and during the 2000–2002 NLL seasons, the Washington Power was based in the city. In rugby league, the Washington D.C. Slayers play in the American National Rugby League.
There were two Major League Baseball teams named the Washington Senators in the early and mid-20^th century, which left to become respectively the Minnesota Twins and the Texas Rangers. In the 19th century, the town was home to teams called the Washington Nationals, Washington Statesmen, and Washington Senators on and off from the 1870s to the turn of the century.
Washington was home to several Negro League baseball teams, including the Homestead Grays, Washington Black Senators, Washington Elite Giants, Washington Pilots, and Washington Potomacs.
The Verizon Center in Chinatown, home to the Capitals, Mystics, Wizards and the Georgetown Hoyas, is also a major venue for concerts, World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) professional wrestling, and other events, having replaced the old Capital Centre. Since its opening in 1997, the arena has served as a catalyst of prosperity in Chinatown. Office buildings, high-end condominiums, restaurant chains, movie theatres, and other luxuries have sprung up around Chinatown.
The city's soccer team, DC United, is the most successful franchise in MLS history, with 4 league championships and 10 total tournament victories, both league highs. Washington will host the 2007 edition of MLS Cup at RFK Stadium. Washington hosts the annual Legg Mason Tennis Classic tennis tournament that takes place at the Carter Barron Tennis Center on 17th Street. The Marine Corps Marathon and the National Marathon are both held annually in Washington.

Media

Newspapers

The Washington Post is the oldest and most-read daily newspaper in Washington, and it has developed into one of the most reputable daily newspapers in the U.S. It is most notable for exposing the Watergate scandal, among other achievements. The Washington Post also has a daily free newspaper called the Express, summarizing events, sports, and entertainment. The more conservative daily The Washington Times and the free weekly Washington City Paper also have substantial readership in the District. On February 1, 2005 the free daily tabloid Washington Examiner debuted, having been formed from a chain of suburban newspapers known as the Journal Newspapers.
The weekly Washington Blade and Metro Weekly focus on homosexual issues and the Washington Informer and the Washington Afro-American on black issues. The bi-weekly Street Sense focuses on issues of homelessness and poverty.
Many neighborhoods in the District have their own community newspapers. Some of these include The Current Newspapers, which has editions serving Dupont Circle, Foggy Bottom, Georgetown, Chevy Chase and Upper Northwest, and a Capitol Hill paper called The Capitol Hill Current/Voice of the Hill. Additional papers include In-Towner (Dupont Circle, Logan Circle and Adams Morgan), Hill Rag (Capitol Hill), East of the River (Anacostia), D.C. North (Northeast D.C.), and The Southwester (Southwest D.C.). In addition, several specialty newspapers serve the U.S. Congress; most notable are Roll Call and The Hill.

Television

The metro area is served by several local broadcast television stations and is the ninth largest designated market area in the U.S., with 2,308,290 homes (2.05% of the U.S. population). Major television network affiliates include WRC 4 (NBC), WTTG 5 (Fox), WJLA 7 (ABC), WUSA 9 (CBS), WDCW 50 (The CW), WDCA 20 (MyNetwork TV), as well as WETA 26 and WHUT 32 (PBS) stations. Channels 4, 5, and 20 are network owned-and-operated stations. Public access on cable television is provided by the Public Access Corporation of the District of Columbia on two channels simulcast to both local cable TV systems. One channel is devoted to religious programming and the other channel provides a diversity of offerings. A regional news station, News Channel 8, is carried on Channel 8 on all cable systems in Washington, D.C. and surrounding communities. Additionally, most Baltimore area television stations can be seen in the Washington region. Besides being viewed clearly in the District, they can especially be seen in the suburbs of the Interstate 95 corridor between both cities. They are WMAR 2 (ABC),
WBAL 11 (NBC),
WJZ 13 (CBS),
WMJF 16 (Ind/MTV2),
WMPT 22 / WMPB 67 (PBS/MPB),
WUTB 24 (MyNetwork TV),
WBFF 45 (FOX), and
WNUV 54 (The CW).
The WTTG Television Tower, built in 1963, is a 214.8 metre high guyed TV mast; it is only 17.2 meters shorter than the Hughes Memorial Tower.
Spanish-language television is also represented by Telemundo WZDC-LP 25 and TeleFutura affiliate WMDO-CA 47, but these are low-power television stations limited to within the Capital Beltway area. Univision's WFDC 14, however, transmits as a full power station and can be received as far north as Baltimore.
On April 10, 2007, Telemundo WZDC-LP switched channel locations from 64 to 25, as the higher band of UHF channels is to be eliminated in the digital switchover of 2009. The channel switchover was also supposed to increase coverage over a larger portion of the metropolitan area. However, viewers still report an inability to see its broadcasts in upper Montgomery County (Burtonsville and Laurel) and Howard County (Columbia/Ellicott City).
Incidentally, D.C's Univision and Telefutura stations (owned by Entravision) switched call letters on January 1, 2006; meaning that now Univision is the only Spanish station which can be seen at full power over the whole Washington metropolitan area. The Univision network moved from low-powered Channel 47/WMDO to full-powered Channel 14/WFDC; Univision's youth-oriented TeleFutura network moved from 14 to 47. The change caused Univision and TeleFutura to exchange channel locations on D.C. area cable TV systems, too.
Azteca America announced they would start transmitting from a new full powered Spanish-language broadcast affiliate in the region, Channel 69/WQAW on October 6, 2006, as well as its addition to local channel lineups for Comcast Cable. However it has not been seen on the air as of yet. Earliest reports from viewers do not indicate availability of its broadcasts inside the District, as far south as Prince William County, Virginia, or as far north as the Columbia/Baltimore area. According to the FCC, WQAW has filed a license application to move their transmitter to Lake Shore, Maryland, thereby rendering better coverage to the area between Baltimore and Washington, and moving to Channel 8.
Several cable television networks have their headquarters in the Washington area, including C-SPAN on Capitol Hill, Black Entertainment Television (BET) in Northeast D.C., National Geographic Channel in Downtown D.C., and Discovery Communications in Silver Spring, Maryland, as well as the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) in Alexandria, Virginia. Major national broadcasters and cable outlets, including NBC, ABC, CBS, FOX, and CNN maintain a significant presence in Washington, as do those from around the world, including the BBC, CBC, and Al Jazeera. America's Most Wanted is the only network primetime program produced in Washington.

Radio

There are several major radio stations serving the metro area, with a wide variety of musical interests. The Contemporary music station is WIHT 99.5 FM (Hot 99.5) located in Rockville, Maryland. Rock stations include WTGB 94.7 FM (The Globe — Triple A) and WWDC 101.1 FM (DC 101 — active/alternative rock). Urban stations include WPGC 95.5 FM (rhythmic top 40/urban contemporary), WHUR 96.3 FM (Howard University urban adult contemporary station), WMMJ 102.3 FM (urban adult contemporary), WKYS 93.9 FM (urban contemporary) and Radio CPR 97.5 FM (a popular pirate radio station broadcasting in the area around Mount Pleasant, Adams Morgan and Columbia Heights). Two major contemporary Christian music stations in the region are WGTS 91.9 FM (of Takoma Park) and WPER 89.9 (of Warrenton, Virginia).
Stations that concentrate on talk and sports include WJFK 106.7 FM (FM talk), WMAL 630 AM (conservative talk), WWRC 1260 AM (progressive talk), WOL 1450 AM (urban talk), WTEM 980 AM (sports talk), Triple X ESPN Radio 92.7 FM/94.3 FM/730 AM (sports talk station controlled by Washington Redskins owner Daniel Snyder), WAVA 105.1 FM and 780 AM (Christian talk radio), WTOP 103.5 FM (news) and WWWT 1500 AM/107.7 FM (3WT-talk). Radio duos Don and Mike and Ron and Fez both had great success on WJFK, although the latter now broadcast on D.C.-based XM Satellite Radio via the network's New York studio.
WOL 1450 AM, WKYS 93.9 FM, and WMMJ 102.3 are owned by Washington's Radio One, the largest African American media conglomerate in the country. It was founded by Cathy Hughes, a prominent figure in Washington radio since her days at Howard University's WHUR.
There are two National Public Radio (NPR) affiliates: WAMU 88.5 FM (NPR and Public Radio International programming, community programming, and BBC news), broadcast from the American University, and WETA 90.9 FM (around-the-clock classical music). Other stations include WASH 97.1 FM (adult contemporary), WMZQ 98.7 FM (country music), WLZL El Zol 99.1 FM (Latin/Tropical), WBIG 100.3 FM (classic hits), WPRS Praise 104.1 FM (gospel), WPGC 1580 AM (gospel), WPFW 89.3 FM (jazz and progressive talk), WJZW 105.9 FM (smooth jazz), and WRQX 107.3 FM (hot adult contemporary). In some parts of the city and suburban Maryland, listeners can hear WMUC 88.1 FM (freeform) the only remaining FM college radio station in the area. Additionally, most major radio stations from Baltimore can be heard in the Washington metropolitan area.
XM Satellite Radio and NPR are based in Washington, as is the Voice of America, the U.S. government's international broadcasting service.

Law and government

Local government

Not being part of any state, Washington, D.C., operates as a city, county, and state combined. The city is run by an elected mayor (Adrian Fenty) and a district council. The council is composed of 13 members: one elected from each of the eight wards and five members, including the chairman, elected at large. The council conducts its work through standing committees and special committees established as needed. District schools are administered by a chancellor, who is appointed by the mayor; in addition, a State Superintendent of Education and a State Board of Education are responsible for setting some educational policies. There are 37 elected Advisory Neighborhood Commissions that provide the most direct access for residents to their local government. The commissions are elected by small neighborhood districts, and their suggestions are required to be given "great weight" by the D.C. Council and city agencies. However, the U.S. Congress has the ultimate plenary power over the district. It has the right to review and overrule laws created locally and has often done so. The Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which grants to states all rights not belonging to the Federal government, does not apply to the District of Columbia.
D.C. residents pay federal taxes, such as income tax, as well as local taxes. The mayor and council adopt a budget, which Congress has the right to change. Much property in the District (an estimated 41 percent) is owned by the Federal government, foreign governments, or tax-exempt organizations and hence is exempt from local property taxes. In addition, the District government is not allowed by Congress to impose an income tax on suburban commuters who work in the city. The city, however, does receive about 25 percent of its budget from the Federal government, part of which is to pay for "state"-level costs that cities normally do not bear and part of which are categorical grants (Medicaid, for example) that also go to all states. Despite its position as a target of terrorist attacks, the federal government decreased the budget for emergency planning and security cost in the District of Columbia from $14 million in 2006 to $3 million in 2008.
Historically, the city's local government has earned somewhat of a reputation for mismanagement and waste, particularly during the mayoralty of Marion Barry. A front-page story in the July 21, 1997 Washington Post reported that Washington had some of the highest-cost lowest-quality services in the entire region, including a high-cost school system with excessive administrative staff but shabby schools and low learning standards. Despite prosperity and budget surpluses in the late 1990s and early 2000s , the city still faces daunting urban renewal, housing, public health and public education challenges.

Representation in federal government

The U.S. Constitution gives Congress direct jurisdiction over Washington, D.C. While Congress has delegated various amounts of this authority to local government, including an elected mayor and city council, Congress still intervenes, from time to time, in local affairs relating to schools, gun control policy, and other issues.
Citizens of the district have no voting representation in Congress. They are represented in the House of Representatives by a non-voting delegate, Eleanor Holmes Norton (D-DC At-Large) who sits on committees and participates in debate, but cannot vote. D.C. has no representation at all in the Senate. Attempts to change this situation, including statehood and the proposed District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment, have been unsuccessful.
Citizens of this national capital district are not unique in the world in having diminished representation in their federal legislature, although they are unique in having no voting representation at all. Some nations that have built capital cities from scratch, including Australia, have diminished representation for a federal district. Washington's situation can also be compared to the historical status of U.S. territories, which had only non-voting delegates to the House. However, unlike U.S. territories today (such as American Samoa, Puerto Rico, and Guam), citizens of the District of Columbia are fully taxed and subject to all U.S. laws, just as the citizens of the fifty states. In recent years, "Taxation Without Representation" has been the motto featured on D.C. vehicle license plates.
It took a Constitutional amendment in 1961 to enable residents of Washington, D.C. to vote for president.

Domestic partnerships

The District of Columbia has recognized domestic partnerships since 1992, but Congress withheld funding to implement recognition until 2002. Both same-sex and mixed-sex couples may register. Under the Domestic Partnership Equality Amendment Act of 2006, D.C. Law 16-79, which came into effect on April 4, 2006, in almost all cases a domestic partner will have the same rights as a spouse regarding inheritance, probate, guardianship, and other rights traditionally accorded to spouses. Employees of the District government and their domestic partners are eligible for the same healthcare coverage and family leave benefits as married couples.

Crime

During the violent crime wave of the early 1990s, Washington, D.C., was known as the "murder capital" of the United States, and often rivaled New Orleans in the high number of homicides. Homicides peaked in 1991 at 482, but the level of violence declined drastically in the 1990s. In 2002, the Beltway sniper attacks took place, with killings in Washington and the surrounding states. In 2006, the annual murder count in the city had declined to 169. Once plagued with violent crime, many D.C. neighborhoods, such as Columbia Heights, are becoming safe and vibrant areas as a result of gentrification. While not as intensely violent, crime hotspots have since displaced farther into the eastern sections of Washington, D.C., and across the border into Maryland. Although the southeastern side of the city has developed a reputation for being unsafe, these crime hotspots are generally concentrated in very specific areas that are associated with drugs and gangs Other areas east of the U.S. Capitol, as well as the city's wealthier Northwest neighborhoods west of Rock Creek Park, experience low levels of crime. Despite the declining trends, Washington D.C., crime rates (2005) remain among the highest of U.S. cities, and it was most recently ranked as the 13th most dangerous city in the nation (2005). Washington, D.C.'s crime rate surpasses the rates of Los Angeles and New York.
Washington's Mayor Fenty is a member of the Mayors Against Illegal Guns Coalition, an organization formed in 2006 and co-chaired by New York City mayor Michael Bloomberg and Boston mayor Thomas Menino.
On July 11,2006, then-Metropolitan Police Chief Charles H. Ramsey declared a "crime emergency" in the city in response to a rising homicide rate (the city had logged 13 murders since July 1, most notably the killing of a prominent British political activist in Georgetown). While the declaration allowed for more flexible and increased policing in high-crime neighborhoods, it was temporary and scheduled to be revisited following a 30-day trial period.

Education

The public school system in the city is operated by District of Columbia Public Schools and consists of 167 schools and learning centers, which consist of 101 elementary schools, 11 middle schools, nine junior high schools, 20 senior high schools, six education centers, and 20 special schools. In 2005-2006, 54,800 students were enrolled in the public school system, with enrollment decreasing. Per-pupil expenditure is very high, but many school buildings are in disrepair, slow to be fixed, and learning performances very low. Turnover of school superintendents is frequent, with many resigning in frustration. At the same time, enrollment in independently run and publicly funded charter schools has increased 13 percent each year since 2001. The District of Columbia Public Charter School Board monitors 37 charter schools in Washington, D.C. In 2005-2006, 19,300 students were enrolled in charter schools.
The city is also home to some of the nation's most renowned private high schools. Many children of political dignitaries have attended St. Albans School and Sidwell Friends School. Other private institutions include Washington International School, St. John's College High School, Georgetown Day School, Gonzaga College High School, Holton-Arms School, National Cathedral School, and Maret School.

Colleges and universities

The city is home to several universities, colleges, and other institutions of higher education, both public and private. The University of the District of Columbia is the city's public university; it is the nation's only urban land-grant university and is counted among the historically black colleges and universities. The Department of Agriculture's Graduate School offers continuing education and graduate-level classes in many disciplines.
Among private institutions, Georgetown University is older than the District itself, having been founded in 1789 by John Carroll. It is the nation's oldest Roman Catholic affiliated body of higher education. The nation's first African American university president was at Georgetown. The university is especially well-known for the Edmund Walsh School of Foreign Service and the Georgetown University Law Center. It also is home to a School of Medicine and the McDonough School of Business.
The George Washington University, founded by an act of Congress in 1821, is the largest institution of higher education in the nation's capital with its main campus in Foggy Bottom and its Mount Vernon campus in the Foxhall neighborhood of Northwest Washington. GW, as it is called locally, is known for the Columbian College of Arts & Sciences, Elliott School of International Affairs, as well as the The George Washington University Law School, George Washington Medical Center and the School of Business. GW has the distinction of having established the first School of Medicine (1825) as well as the first Law School (1865) in Washington, D.C. The University is the second-largest landholder and employer in the District, second only to the Federal government.
American University, a private institution chartered by an act of Congress in 1893, is situated on an 84 acre (34 ha) campus in upper Northwest Washington and is well known for the Washington College of Law, the Kogod School of Business, the School of International Service, the School of Public Affairs, and the School of Communication.
The Catholic University of America (CUA), in the Northeast quadrant of the District is unique as the national university of the Roman Catholic Church and as the only higher education institution founded by U.S. Roman Catholic bishops. Established in 1887 following approval by Pope Leo XIII as a graduate and research center, the university began offering undergraduate education in 1904. In April of 2004, CUA purchased 49 acres (20 ha) of land from the Armed Forces Retirement Home. The parcel is the largest plot of open space in the District and makes CUA the largest university in D.C. by land area.
The Trinity Washington University, located near CUA, was founded in 1897 by the Sisters of Notre Dame as a Catholic liberal arts college for women. Trinity educates women in its College of Arts and Sciences, and both women and men in the School of Education and School of Professional Studies.
Other notable private colleges in the District include Gallaudet University, the first liberal arts college for the deaf and hard-of-hearing, Howard University, a historically black university dating to the nineteenth century which among other achievements trained many early black physicians, and Southeastern University, a smaller institution with a concentration in business studies.
Furthermore, The Johns Hopkins University's Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS), dedicated to the graduate study of international relations and international economics, is located near Dupont Circle, on Massachusetts Avenue's Embassy Row.
The Department of Defense maintains the National Defense University at Fort McNair. The National Defense Intelligence College is also located in D.C. The Corcoran College of Art and Design has an arts program attached to the Corcoran Museum of Art, adjacent to the White House Complex. The Reformed Theological Seminary, Wesley Theological Seminary, and the Washington Theological Union have graduate programs in theology. Strayer University, a for-profit career school, has a campus in Washington, D.C.

Infrastructure

Health systems

A prominent hospital in Washington, D.C. is Walter Reed Army Medical Center, the U.S. Army's premier medical center on the east coast. The 5,500-bed Walter Reed provides care for dependents, active-duty and retired personnel from all branches of the armed forces, as well as the President, Vice President, and Congressmen. The hospital, however, is scheduled to move to a newer and larger facility in nearby Bethesda, Maryland, forcing its closure in 2011.
Armed Forces veterans also receive care at the Veterans' Affairs Medical Center in the grounds of the Old Soldier's Home.
Washington Hospital Center is the largest hospital campus in the District, and both the largest private and largest non-profit hospital in the Metropolitan Area. It is consistently ranked among the top hospitals in the United States, notably by HCIA and U.S. News & World Report.
Immediately adjacent to the Washington Hospital Center campus in central Washington are the National Rehabilitation Hospital, and Children's National Medical Center (although Children's has satellite centers scattered across the city). Both, like WHC, are among the highest-ranked hospitals in the nation.
The Specialty Hospital of Washington is a long-term acute care facility, established in 1995 in Northeast D.C.
Three of the universities in Washington have associated medical schools - and, subsequently, hospitals: George Washington, Georgetown and Howard University. All three are teaching hospitals and are highly regarded institutions. In particular, George Washington University Medical Center is noteworthy as the medical center whose doctors saved the life of President Ronald Reagan when he was shot in 1981. The GWU Emergency Room facility, in fact, is named for Reagan. Georgetown University Medical Center is home to the Lombardi Cancer Center, which is the sole comprehensive cancer center in the Washington, D.C. region.
The oldest continuously operating hospital in the city is Providence Hospital in Northeast D.C., chartered by Abraham Lincoln in 1861. There are three additional private, non-profit community hospitals in Washington: Sibley Memorial Hospital in upper Northwest, Hadley Memorial, a long-term acute care facility in lower Southwest, and Greater Southeast Community Hospital in Southeast, which generally serves the population east of the Anacostia River.
Until 2001, D.C. General Hospital operated near Capitol Hill as the city's only public health-care facility. Mayor Anthony A. Williams had the hospital (which lost several million dollars a year) shut down in an attempt to manage the city's recovery from bankruptcy. The majority of its patient base has since been picked up by Greater Southeast and Prince George's Hospital in Maryland. Mayor Williams in 2005 proposed a new state-of-the-art facility, the National Capital Medical Center, be built on the D.C. General campus as a joint project of the city and Howard University. However, higher-than-expected cost analyses and questions about the proposed hospital's public-health-care capacity caused support for the project to dwindle rapidly. In 2006, the Mayor instead announced support for a $72 million "healthplex" on the D.C. General grounds.
In addition, there are three psychiatric hospitals in Washington, D.C.: Riverside Hospital, Saint Elizabeth's Hospital and the Psychiatric Institute of Washington.

Utilities

Washington draws its drinking water from the Potomac River. The Washington Aqueduct, managed by the Army Corps of Engineers, operates the water supply and treatment facilities, chiefly the Dalecarlia and McMillan reservoirs and water treatment plants. Treated water is distributed by the District of Columbia Water and Sewer Authority.In July 2007, tests showed unsafe levels of chlorine and lead in the water provided to many parts of the city.

Transportation

Roads & highways

Pierre L'Enfant's original plan for the city provided for a grid of streets and a diagonal array of avenues, all centered on the Capitol building. The north-south streets are primarily named with numbers and the east-west streets with letters. From the Capitol as the center, one set of numbered streets sweeps eastward (1st Street, 2nd Street, etc.) and another set sweeps westward (1st Street, 2nd Street, etc.) Similarly, sets of lettered streets sweep northward from the Capitol (A Street, C Street, etc.) and southward. The diagonal avenues in L'Enfant's plan are chiefly named after states (e.g., Pennsylvania Avenue). Street addresses are identified by their location in one of the four quadrants of the city, centered on the Capitol building: Northeast (NE), Northwest (NW), Southeast (SE) and Southwest (SW). Addresses end with a quadrant suffix to indicate whether the location is, for example, on 4th Street NE, 4th Street NW, 4th Street SE or 4th Street SW. Outside the original city boundaries, street layout and naming practices are less regular. However, the alphabetic order of east-west streets, ending with W Street, is in some areas succeeded by an alphabetic progression of two-syllable names (e.g. Adams, Bryant, Channing), followed by a three-syllable progression (e.g. Allison, Buchanan, Crittenden), and then a progression of botanical names (e.g. Aspen, Butternut, Cedar).
Major interstates running through the area include the Capital Beltway (I-495), I-66, I-95, I-395 (also called the Southwest-Southeast Freeway), I-295 (also called the Anacostia Freeway or Kenilworth Avenue), and I-270 (which does not reach D.C., terminating at I-495). Other major highways include the Whitehurst Freeway and Anacostia Freeway in D.C., the George Washington Parkway in Virginia, the Suitland Parkway in D.C. and Maryland, the US Route 50, the Clara Barton Parkway in D.C. and Maryland, the Rock Creek and Potomac Parkway in D.C., the Baltimore-Washington Parkway in Maryland, and the Dulles Toll Road in Virginia. I-95 was originally planned to cross through the city, but due to the Freeway Revolts of the 1960's, this plan was aborted, and I-95 was re-directed onto the Capital Beltway.

Rail & bus

The Washington area is served by the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority, which operates the region's subway system, Metrorail (the nation's second-busiest after New York's subway), as well as Metrobus. The bus and rail systems serve both Washington and the immediate closest counties. A public-private partnership operates several DC Circulator bus routes downtown. Many of the jurisdictions around the region run public buses that interconnect with the Metrobus/Metrorail system; the state of Maryland as well as private bus lines provide rush-hour commuter busses from more distant counties. Union Station is the second busiest train station in the United States after New York's Penn Station. It is the southern terminus of Amtrak's Northeast Corridor service, and is served by MARC and Virginia Railway Express commuter trains.
Intercity bus service is available from the Greyhound Lines Terminal in Northeast D.C., located near the New York Ave-Florida Ave-Gallaudet U Metro station, and from dragon buses leaving from Chinatown.
The American Automobile Association for several years has ranked the Washington metro area has having the nation's second worst traffic congestion, surpassed only by Los Angeles. Among other factors, no new Potomac vehicular bridge spans have been added since 1965.

Aviation

Washington, D.C. is served by three major airports, one in Maryland and two in Virginia. Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport is the closest - located in Arlington County, Virginia, just across the Potomac River from Hains Point, and accessible via Washington Metro. The airport is conveniently located near the downtown area; however it only serves flights to and from airports within the United States and has additional restrictions because of noise and security concerns. Most major international flights arrive and depart from Washington Dulles International Airport , located 26.3 miles (42.3 km) west of the city in Fairfax and Loudoun counties in Virginia. Dulles is the second busiest international gateway on the Eastern Seaboard. Dulles is a hub for United Airlines and offers service from several low-cost carriers, including JetBlue and Southwest, although the low-cost selection decreased greatly when Independence Air (which was headquartered at Dulles) folded in January 2006. Baltimore-Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport , is located 31.7 miles (51.0 km) northeast of the city in Anne Arundel County, Maryland, near Baltimore. BWI has had the highest passenger volume of the three major airports in the Baltimore-Washington Metroplex for several months.
General aviation is additionally available at several smaller airfields, including Montgomery County Airpark (Gaithersburg, Maryland), College Park Airport (College Park, Maryland), Potomac Airfield (Friendly CDP of Prince George's County, Maryland) and Manassas Regional Airport (Manassas, Virginia). Since 2003, the general aviation airports closest to Washington, D.C. have had their access limited by an Air Defense Identification Zone (ADIZ).

Holidays

Emancipation Day

Washington, D.C. celebrates April 16 as Emancipation Day. On that day in 1862, President Abraham Lincoln signed the Compensated Emancipation Act for the release of certain persons held to service or labor in the District of Columbia. The Act freed about 3,100 enslaved persons in the District of Columbia nine months before President Lincoln issued his famous Emancipation Proclamation which presaged the eventual end of slavery to the rest of the nation. The District of Columbia Compensated Emancipation Act represents the only example of compensation by the federal government to free enslaved persons.
The Emancipation Day celebration was held yearly from 1866 to 1901, and was resumed as a tradition and historic celebration in 2002. On January 4, 2005, Mayor Anthony Williams signed legislation making Emancipation Day an official public holiday in the District. Each year, a series of activities will be held during the public holiday, including the traditional Emancipation Day parade celebrating the freedom of enslaved persons in the District of Columbia.
In 2007, the observance of this holiday had the effect of nationally extending the 2006 income tax filing deadline from the 16th to the 17th of April, a delay that will recur in April of 2011. This 2007 date change was not discovered until after many Internal Revenue Service forms went to print.

Sister cities

Washington, D.C.'s sister cities are:
Ten of these cities are designated by Sister Cities International.
In June 2006, the city signed an Agreement of Friendship with the British city of Sunderland, signalling the start of increased economic and cultural cooperation between the two cities. Washington Old Hall, on the outskirts of Sunderland, is the ancestral home of George Washington. Both these cities participate in town twinning instead of sister cities.

External links

Official Website

Guide to Washington, D.C., Materials from the Library of Congress

USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Washington, D.C.

The L'Enfant and MacMillan city plans for Washington, D.C.

DC Museums Worth the Price of Admission

The Ugliest Memorials in DC

Central DC Building Lookup

Webcams

Washington Monument Capitol Building Webcam

Washington Monument Capitol Building Potomac River Webcam

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

It's hard to describe Rome in a few words; a city so vast and rich in art, monuments and exquisite views, a historic city, which has preserved its charm and independence throughout the centuries.

Rome's history can be read in every monument, and palazzo; in fact, each and every stone bears witness to the periods of splendour, decay, wars, and numerous architectural styles. The city could be described as a gigantic open-air museum, visited each year by millions of tourists, scholars and pilgrims from all over the world.

It is hard to believe that Roman civilization began with a small settlement of shepherds and farmers near the Tevere river, on Palatino (one of the seven hills on which Rome was built and where most of the Roman archaeological treasures were found), tradition dictates that this is where Romulus founded the city and where Augustus, the first Emperor, built his house, which is now widely (and incorrectly) known as the house of Livia, his wife.

The city extended over six other hills: Quirinale, Viminale, Esquilino, Celio, Aventino and Capitolino.

Quirinale, the highest of the seven hills, has Piazza Omonima on its summit, with its colossal statues of the gods, Castor and Pollux and the Palazzo del Quirinale , where the president lives. Opposite the Palazzo are the Scuderie, open to the public thanks to the architect Gae Aulenti, who created a functional exhibition space inside the building.

Viminale stands next to Quirinale, it is smaller in size, split into two by Via Nazionale, and dominated by the huge Palazzo delle Esposizioni building (designed by Pio Piacentini) on Piazza della Repubblica , near Rome's principal railway station, Stazione Termini . Piazza della Repubblica is one of the most beautiful piazzas in Rome, surrounded by arches. The restored Fontana delle Naiadi takes pride of place in the centre of the square.

Esquilino is the home of the great poets Virgilio and Orazio. It has three peaks, one of which is Monte Oppio, where you can find the ruins of Domus Aurea , finally opened to the public after years of restoration. Initially, Esquilino was a suburb of Rome, which is the reason for the nickname 'exquilini' (non-tenants) given to its inhabitants, some believe that this is how the hill got its name.

Further south stand Celio and Aventino. The former has a long promontory, called Monte delle Querce, as it was once home to many oak trees (querce). It is possibly the greenest and most charming of the seven hills and is home to Parco del Celio and Villa Celimontana . There are many beautiful buildings here, especially along the magnificent Appia Antica . Almost all are places of worship. Both Aventino and Celio have few inhabitants. Aventino is rich in important medieval monuments such as the Santa Maria in Cosmedin basilica, where the famous Bocca della Verità, or mouth of truth, is housed.

Last but not least is Capitolino, which stands between Palatino and Quirinale: this used to be the religious and political centre of the city during the Roman era. It is dominated by the Michelangelo styled Piazza del Campidoglio , perfectly proportioned, with a statue of Emperor Marcus Aurelius on horseback in the centre. Located here, the Capitoline Museums , have some of the most precious art collections in the world.

The seven hilltops offer a number of beautiful views; the most breathtaking of these are Pincio , the dome of San Pietro (St. Peter's Basilica) and the Gianicolo.

Rome has spread outwards in a rather haphazard manner, without much regard to town planning; many fields were acquired by the local authorities and transformed into new neighbourhoods. North of Rome, near the Vatican are the Aurelio, Prati and Mazzini neighbourhoods, which are more commercial and residential, as well as the elegant quarters of Parioli and Nomentano, home to many foreign embassies. At nearby Montesacro, visit Ponte Nomentano , the storied fortified bridge that has seen the rise and fall of many eras. Neighbouring Monteverde is home to Villa Doria Pamphili , the largest park in all of Rome. Further south are Prenestino and Tiburtino, more populated areas, due to the fact that they are university areas, full of students, who can also be found in the nearby S. Lorenzo, a charming district with a wide variety of pizzerias and bars. Trastevere, is undoubtedly one of the most charming areas of the city, and one of the most crowded areas too - especially on summer evenings. Many people (foreigners and Romans alike) want to live in this highly desirable district, home of historic places of worship such as the Santa Maria in Trastevere and hot night spots like Trastè. Finally, Eur, one of Rome's most modern neighbourhoods, is home to some fascinating Fascist-style architecture, as evidenced by the many offices and administration centres in and around the Piazzale delle Nazioni Unite .

The various and diverse "villages" of London reflect the full spectrum of the city's residents. From exclusively elite establishments to downright dingy dives, tourist-drenched terrain and home-grown habitation, there's something for every visitor. As Dr Johnson said back in the 18th century: "If you're tired of London, you're tired of life."

Battersea & Clapham - Home to hoards of trendy young things, Battersea & Clapham is the place to go for fun and funky bars and restaurants outside of central London.

Bayswater & Paddington - Famous for its train station and the Peruvian bear named after it (the marmalade sandwich-munching Paddington Bear), this area is a good bet for affordable accommodation that's close to the tranquillity of Hyde Park and Kensington Gardens.

Bloomsbury, Fitzrovia & Euston - Bloomsbury is London's literary capital and a walking tour is the best way to discover the haunts of the city's wordy geniuses. A visit to the area is not complete without a wander in the hallowed halls of London's biggest tourist lure – the British Museum .

Brixton - Reggae beats and spicy treats prevail in London's largest Afro-Caribbean community. Once a shabby, no-go area, it is now frequented by all kinds of people, including trendy, affluent types who hang out in the myriad of cool bars and happening clubs. The wonderful cultural diversity is visible in the bustling, popular market, and the famous Fridge nightclub.

Camden - Crowded streets spill over with shoppers and people-watchers who flock from far and wide to chill out, rather than haggle, at Camden Market . But good cafes, clubs and a top comedy venue make Camden much more than a great market area.

The City & Square Mile - England's coffers are literally in the Square Mile; one of the few places where the streets might as well be paved with gold. Modern structures like the Lloyd's Building , outnumber the more ancient edifices such as the Bank of England and the Old Bailey . The City encompasses the sacred in St. Paul's Cathedral and the quotidian in Spitalfields Market and Leadenhall Market .

Clerkenwell & Shoreditch - This trendy area is rife with hip, sofa-strewn hangouts, swanky restaurants and galleries. Most of the action revolves around Hoxton Square but East London is always booming due to its proximity to the City. Once favoured only by struggling artists on the cutting edge, it's now a new media mecca with arty types and savvy techie upstarts providing a vibrant mix.

Covent Garden & Holborn - There's been a clamp down on street performers, but the open-air party atmosphere still pervades in Covent Garden's Piazza . The 18th century iron and glass former fruit and vegetable market has evolved gracefully and now houses fashion boutiques and other up-market stores. Stroll down Long Acre, Floral Street and the cobbled Neal Street or visit the Royal Opera House .

Docklands & Wapping - Heavily bombed during WWII, this area became the incarnation of 80s prosperity. Canary Wharf Tower dominates the skyline and the Canary Wharf area is one of the capital's greatest economic powerhouses. The Tower of London was a 16th century prison where some of Henry VIII's unlucky wives were beheaded. No longer so unfriendly, you can now view the fabulous Crown Jewels. Next, stroll outside and take in the stunning Tower Bridge .

Ealing - This is home to a beautiful active Benedictine Abbey, a large Polish community and the famous Ealing Studios where the Goons and Hitchcock produced their magic.

Greenwich - Otherwise known as zero degrees longitude and the home to Greenwich Mean Time. Take a boat trip down the Thames for a romantic day out or visit the National Maritime Museum , the imposing Royal Naval College , Cutty Sark , and the Thames Barrier Park .

Hammersmith, Shepherds Bush & Chiswick - Hammersmith and "Da Bush," as the area is sometimes more affectionately known, is a great place to come for a meal or night out away from the hustle and bustle of the city centre. A popular place for theatre, you can choose from the cosy Lyric Hammersmith , the top quality London Apollo or the fringe-style Bush Theatre .

Hampstead - Leafy suburbia with a charming village ambience. Steeped in literary history, the homes of poets, playwrights and actors of past and present are marked by endless blue plaques. An afternoon in Kenwood House or strolling on Hampstead Heath is worlds away from the noise and bustle of London.

Islington - Blair's home ground and a yuppie playground; Upper Street is one long stretch of restaurants and bars. Seek out antiques in Camden Passage or stroll along Regent's Canal and see why this corner of North London is spectacular.

Kensington & Chelsea - Darling! Chic boutiques, expensive restaurants, snooty aristocrats and models in slick sports cars haunt Brompton Cross, King's Road, Kensington High Street and its environs. The Earl's Court Exhibition Centre is always a hub of activity, and it's always a pleasure to cruise across the delightful Albert Bridge at night when it's all lit up.

Knightsbridge & Belgravia - The two reasons to shop in this area have to be Piccadilly Circus and Harrods . Down the road is the stunning Baroque Brompton Oratory , and be sure not to miss Kensington Church Street or Sloane Street.

Maida Vale & St John's Wood - An intriguing juxtaposition of massive houses and council estates gives this area a diverse ethnic and economic mix. Worth a visit if you fancy going a bit Mediterranean in the canals and cafés of Little Venice. It's also home to the venerable cricketing institute, Lord's Cricket Ground .

Marylebone & Regent's Park - Harley Street is renowned worldwide for its medical consultants and cosmetic surgeons. A stone's throw from Baker Street is Madame Tussaud's and Regent's Park . Wigmore Street hosts virtuosos at the legendary Wigmore Hall while the private Wallace Art Collection is housed in Manchester Square. Elegant Marylebone High Street has tasty gastronomic venues, high fashion boutiques, and an Aveda Lifestyle Store . The beautiful interior of St James' Church , around the corner in Spanish Place, was restored thanks to John Paul Getty III.

Mayfair - This district is full of refined hotels where affluent foreigners stay. The impressive 18th century edifices of Mayfair are resided in by people of fabulous wealth. First-class shopping can be found along Bond Street and you can pick up a gem or two at Sotheby's .

Notting Hill & Ladbroke Grove - This is a supremely hip district offers designer boutiques, retro shops, heavenly delicatessens, and the antique and bric-a-brac stalls of Portobello Road Market . The world famous Notting Hill Carnival at the end of August brings a Caribbean flavor to the streets– with hip-swaying dance troupes and general revelry. Fantastic café life, decadent bars, and superb restaurants satisfy the gourmands. The gospel choir at Kensington Temple is well-known for its soulful, arm-waving harmonies.

Putney - This district is comprised of riverside pubs, rowing clubs, and wealthy stockbrokers. Nearby Barnes is a similarly bucolic, quiet and upscale residential neighborhood.

Richmond - Richmond Park , is one of Europe's largest parks. 17th century Ham House , Kew Gardens' botanic splendour and Palladian Marble Hill House are all excellent reasons to venture beyond the centre of town. A fun day trip is to take a boat from the Pier to Hampton Court Palace ?

Soho & West End - This area is a vibrant fusion of trendy and tacky. It leads a promiscuous double life: a Red Light district, and a respectable drinking and dining area. Chinatown is vibrant and the area also offers a host of other cuisines- British, vegetarian, French, and Thai. Many Londoners congregate here for Chinese New Year- a very colorful spectacle.

Leicester Square and Piccadilly are full of tourist frenzy. The Square is home to several bright and shiny multiplexes and is no stranger to star-studded film premieres. There are a plethora of bars, pubs and clubs keep the punters happy. Stroll down Piccadilly - pop into Fortnum & Mason , take tea at the Ritz or shop along the sartorially elegant Jermyn and Regent Streets.

Southwark & Waterloo - In this district, visitors can watch Shakespearean actors pace the boards at the marvelous Globe Theatre . The Tate Modern further boosts the Southbank's shining cultural program. Foodies may wish to enter Butler's Wharf - a gastronomic temple. Don't miss the London Eye (also known as the Millennium Wheel) near Westminster Bridge. The gigantic Ferris wheel offers unrivaled views of London.

Westminster & St James's - The British Empire was ruled from Whitehall, but now it serves little more than the UK. Not surprisingly, civil servants and politicians abound in the vicinity. A big and bountiful Ben strikes out the hour, loud enough to wake the old Kings and Queens from their tombs in Westminster Abbey . Visitors should definitely check out the Pugin-designed Houses of Parliament situated along the beautifully illuminated river, and take a stroll in St. James's Park and Green Park .

Victoria & Pimlico - Dominated by train and coach stations, many visitors use Victoria as a staging post to Central London. However Pimlico is a little-known gem, well worth a visit.

Wimbledon - There's more to the Village than the Wimbledon Tennis Championships , although it does tend to dominate the summer months. There's a huge Common where you can ride horses or spot Wombles. You can also visit the Georgian Cannizaro House and the Wimbledon Windmill. This is where Baden-Powell invented scouting and Thomas Hughes wrote Tom Brown's Schooldays.